Student Information Sheet: Dialectical-Thinking Model

Many times there is more then one possible solution to a problem or an issue. People may not even agree on what the problem is. Life is complicated, and different people see things in different ways. But they still have to live together, and often they have to figure out how they can come to one conclusion even though they disagree. Dialectical thinking is a method people can use "to work things out".

You are doing dialectical thinking when you have an argument with yourself about something in your head. Without putting any fancy words to it, when you argue with yourself you do something like this:

Independent learning: Becoming aware of your own thinking:	What you are actually doing when you think this way:	How an essay would look if you used the system of dialectical thinking to handle an issue:
Having an Argument with Yourself	Dialectical Thinking	A "Both Sides" Essay
You want to do something very badly.	Dialectical thinking begins by understanding that most situations are complicated and often you want two opposite things at the same time.	Paragraph 1: This is an introduction explaining briefly to your reader what the essay is about.
So you imagine how wonderful it would be to do it in a certain way. Let's call that A.	1. Everyone has a point of view that may be right or wrong.	Paragraph 2: Here you explain the position you are going to take on an issue. I believe that ...
So you think of: all the different reasons why you should do this thing; how it would be good for you; how much you deserve this thing because you have worked so hard; and, how it would help others if you did it.	2. We had better check it out to see whether our point of view is any good.	Paragraph 3: This paragraph is the "same-side" argument which outlines logically all the reasons supporting the position you are taking.
Suddenly something else comes along that you could do at the same time with the same money. Then it hits you that maybe A wouldn't be such a good idea after all. You become very interested in this new thing; let's call it B.	3. Dialectical thinking means that we cannot ignore or pretend that other ways of doing things do not exist because they do and they might be better than we first thought.	Paragraph 4: This is the "other-side" position on the issue you are discussing in this essay.
Having an Argument with Yourself	Dialectical Thinking	A "Both Sides" Essay
So now you think of: all the different reasons why you should do B; how it also would be good for you; how much you deserve B too because you have worked so hard; and, how it would help others if you did it.	4. The second view like the first view also needs to be checked out to see if it is any good.	Paragraph 5: Here you outline logically all the reasons supporting that position. (To be fair it is important that you give all the reasons there are and write this side as if you believe it.)
Now you have to make a choice. What are you going to do? This is where you need to do some hard thinking (scheming?): Is there some way I can arrange to do both? Do I really want to do A? or B? Do I know for sure that one is as good as the other? What will happen if I do one and not the other? What is the best choice I can make under these circumstances?	5. This is the crunch part of the dialectic where you compare each view and its supporting reasons and try to decide which is better. You can do this by asking yourself the kind of questions in the left column.	Paragraph 6: This is your concluding paragraph in which you examine both sets of reasons and then explain why you reached the conclusion(s) that you did.
Finally you might end up saying something like this: A looks really great, and I wish I could do it, but I think I'm going to go with B, or vice versa.	6. Finally you make up your mind. If you're lucky maybe you can figure out how to get both things at the same time, or maybe you can find a way to get as much as possible while giving up as little as possible.	In the conclusion of a "both-sides" essay you can do three basic things: you can conclude that your position is basically correct; you can conclude that the other side is better and change your mind; or, you can conclude that some combination of both sides actually does a better job of explaining things than either of the two you began with.

There is a concept map of the dialectical thinking process on the next page. This is another way of explaining how we decide what to think when things contradict each other.
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Student Information Sheet: Methods of Testing Viewpoints to See How Good They Are

If someone comes to you and tries to get you to believe something, how do you decide whether to believe it or not? Often you are being told one thing by someone and another thing by someone else. When people are trying to be convincing, they are always tempted to tell you things in a way that makes their point of view look as good as possible.

For example, how many times have you told your parents a story using only certain pieces of information, which you have carefully arranged to get Mom and Dad to believe what you want them to believe? Do you say things like, "All the other kids are doing it," even though you know that's not completely true?

Tricks People Use to Slant the Story	Things You Can Do to Protect Yourself
1. Probably the most basic tricks are to: leave out information which would give a different point of view; and, carefully twist the information to give the viewpoint you want.	1. The fundamental things to always, ask yourself: Is there another side to this story, issue, or problem? (There always is.) Are the facts true, and did I get all of them? Were some key pieces of information left out that changes the meaning somehow? Did I get a set of slanted interpretations that are highly biased supporting only one point of view?
2. The next most frequently used trick is to select words which will influence people's emotions. Saying communists are "evil", for instance, rather than "different". People often use very emotional words rather than neutral, descriptive words.	2. Look at whether the words being used are very emotional in some way and mentally try to replace them with more neutral words. How much difference does this make to what the writer/speaker is saying?
3. A favourite trick is to attack another group as being terrible in some way rather than dealing with the issue(s). "So and so is a racist, power hungry pig", etc., rather than saying "I disagree with her/him because of..." People do this when they know their point of view is weak.	3. As soon as someone starts to "name call" your suspicion antennas ought to be working overtime. Something is wrong somewhere.
Making Mistakes in Logic People make mistakes in what they are saying because they are human and are either simply wrong or don't know how to make a logical argument. Many of the following errors are like that.	Watching for these Mistakes You need to know some ways of testing an argument so that you don't get caught by the mistakes of the speaker or writer who is trying to give you a viewpoint.
4. When people really believe something, they often don't really worry about whether they are being logical. What can happen is that: their conclusions don't follow from their examples; and/or, they use one example to base a generalization on and ignore many examples that show the opposite.	4. Don't just accept logic, think about it. For example, is it true to say: All grade eleven students are alike. Mary Jane is in grade eleven and has behaved irresponsibly. So all grade eleven are irresponsible. Watch the logic, it can fool you. Mentally put a question mark (?) behind these statements because they may not be true.
5. People will often believe that the facts they are using to support their conclusions are relevant when they are not. For example, some famous person argued that television programming was responsible for the Los Angeles riots. Television may actually be irrelevant here.	5. Ask yourself whether it is realistic to believe that one thing is a cause of another thing. It is easy to be fooled and one should always be sceptical about cause and effect. Things are not always what they seem to be. Seeing is not always believing. This applies particularly to things you see on TV.
6. People who really believe something may have given up being critical about what they believe. So they think their conclusions are good for everything and everybody.	6. There are some tests you can apply to conclusions you are being asked to accept: The new cases test: Try to apply the conclusions to different situations to see whether they still make sense. The role exchange test: Try to put yourself in the place of the person or group and see whether you like the conclusion. The universal consequences test: What would happen if everyone accepted this conclusion and practised it?
7. People will often try to be convincing by: ignoring the other side of the case; or, by making the other side look weak so their side looks strong.	7. Be suspicious when you are not getting the other side of the story. If the issue is a long- standing one and is not resolved over time, then there are likely two strong points of view on the issue. Find out what the missing one is before you make up your mind.
8. People who believe something strongly may have stopped looking for creative, better solutions that may be available.	8. When you look at someone's conclusion, make sure that: all the different points of view have been considered in a fair and honest way; the conclusion represents the greatest good for the greatest number of people; the conclusion presents the optimum solution (the best result using the fewest resources); the consequences of the conclusion would be acceptable to everyone concerned; and, the conclusion fits with reality.

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Student Information Sheet: Problem-Solving Model

People who have studied problem solving a great deal suggest that it is helpful to do the following things when you are faced with a problem.

1. Spend some time figuring out what the real problem is.

   Often people spend time and energy trying to solve the wrong problem and then find that either they can't solve it or they are unhappy with the results.

2. Next you should spend some time thinking about what you really want.

   If you don't, you may find that the results you get are not what you want.

3. Make a list of all the possible solutions you can think of (even the crazy ones), so that you have considered as many different ways of solving your problem.

4. Then decide which of these solutions are the best (evaluate them), and list them in order of preference. In evaluating, go back to points 1 and 2:
   • Are you working on the right problem?
   • Will these solutions work?
   • Do you like the results?

5. Now you are ready to pick one of your solutions and try it out in detail.

   You can first try a solution out by discussing it with someone else. If you are still satisfied after your discussion, you can be reasonably certain the solution is right for you.

6. At this point you need to think about whether your solution is getting what you said you wanted in step 2.

   It is important to ask yourself some really basic questions:

   • Do I like what is happening?
   • Is this what I expected to happen?
   • Should I change this before its too late?
   • What else should I be doing?

7. If the answer to the above questions is yes then you're OK. But if a lot of the answers are no, then maybe you should return to steps 4 and 5 to see whether there is something different you should be doing.

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Student Information Sheet: Decision-Making Model

Usually the end result of problem solving and dialectical thinking is a decision. We all have to make many decisions in our lifetime. Some of them we do quickly in the course of an average day. Others are bigger and have more serious consequences for us if we do not make a good decision.

For instance, what career are you going to select?

This is typical of life's decisions: not enough information, many different alternatives to choose from, and serious consequences if the wrong alternative is chosen. So we all have an interest in learning how to make decisions effectively.

Good decision-making models are based on common sense:

Decision Making	Things to consider in making a Decision
1. Get as much information as possible by: taking time to think about what you know and feel about the issue; and researching the issue so that you are sure you know the necessary information.	1. Make sure that: you know what you want; your information is complete and accurate; and, you are clear on what you are deciding.
2. Make an informed decision by: defining and stating the problem clearly and precisely; looking at as many different solutions to the problem as you can find; trying to decide what the consequences of each solution would be; and, then deciding which solution you are going to use (making a decision).	2. Think about: all the different choices you could make (even the weird ones); and, what it would be really like if you tried each one (Take your time here so you don't miss something);
3. Design and carry out an action plan by: deciding on all the different things that need to be done; organizing the things that need to be done in a logical order; and, then doing them.	3. Now you are ready to make a decision by picking the alternative that seems: the most practical (It is something that can be done in these circumstances.); the most efficient (You get the most for the least.); to achieve the results you wanted; and, to have the most desirable consequences in the long run.
4. Evaluate the plan by: checking to see if the results are consistent with your objectives.	4. Effective planning means that you: think of all the different things that need to be done; decide on a logical order in which to do them; and, carry out your plan.
	5. It is critical to the success of any plan to know what is going on. Is the plan doing what you thought it would do? Is it doing what you want it to do? If there is a problem, what is it? and, How can the problem be fixed?

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Student Information Sheet: Conflict-Resolution Model

Humans are not always reasonable people. In fact when we are upset, worried, frightened, distrustful, or angry, we can get stubborn and nasty. This is especially true when we have to solve a problem or make a decision about something we care about very much.

When dealing with people, it is important to remember that it is easier to avoid a conflict than to fix one after everyone is upset. Avoiding conflict involves being concerned about other people's feelings in the same way you would like them to be concerned about your feelings. If you approach people in an open, friendly way, they are likely to respond to you in the same way and are much more likely to be agreeable and easy to work with.

Steps in working out conflicts

1. You and someone else are not getting along at all, so you need to deal with the situation honestly and clearly by:
   • explaining clearly those things that are making it difficult for you to work with that person;
   • doing this in a way that does not make the situation worse;
   • making sure that everyone has enough time to say what they need to say;
   • telling the other person(s) about your feelings the least threatening way possible; and,
   • making sure you listen carefully and clearly understand the other person's feelings.
2. Now you both need to decide what the conflict is. Remember that it takes two to make a conflict and it takes two to settle one; so it is important in reaching an agreement to define the conflict in a way that both sides can accept. If one side thinks that they are being blamed unfairly, then they will never agree to a solution.
   • In discussing the conflict, make sure you do not accuse or insult the other side. Describe only the actions of the other side using language that does not make people more upset.
   • Describe the conflict as both sides' problem. Do not turn it into a win-lose struggle by making it all someone else's problem.
   • Keep the problem as small and precise as possible. Do not blow it out of proportion so, that it seem overwhelming, threatening, and unsolvable.
3. In discussing the problem make sure that you let each other know about how your emotions change as you deal with each other.
   • As you negotiate with each other, your opinions and feelings will change. Make sure that everyone knows how important it is to let each other know what the changes are and why they have changed.
   • If you don't do this, your conflict will continue and get worse because you won't be listening to each other. So, it is important to use all your communicating and listening skills to make sure everyone understands the situation.
4. Let the other side know what your intentions are.
   • If you tell the other side that you want to cooperate, that you care about what they want, and that to the best of your ability you are going to try to find a position that both of you can live with, then often the defensiveness and aggression of the other side will be reduced.
5. Take an honest look at the other side's point of view.
   • Sometimes the other side's resistance is a complete mystery to you.
   • If that is the case, make the effort to put yourself in their place and try to see the situation from their perspective.
   • Successful negotiation requires finding some common ground on which everyone can agree.
   • If you clearly understand the other viewpoint, it is possible to see where you might agree on certain things.
6. Make sure the other side really serious about settling the conflict.
   • Not everybody wants to settle the conflict, sometimes they may only want to win, humiliate, or hurt the opposition.
   • In order to change people's attitudes, it may be necessary to get them to understand that they are losing more than they are gaining by continuing the conflict.
7. In reaching an agreement remember that an agreement will last only if everyone is satisfied that it is fair. If one side is really happy and the other side is really frustrated and angry, then the deal will likely fail because the frustrated side will find good reasons not to support the agreement in the future.