Appendix
Elements of Music and Principles of Composition

The following outlines what the students should experience for the elements of music and principles of composition in the middle years. These concepts may be reinforced and applied throughout the year.

The Elements of Music

Pitch Pitch describes the highness or lowness of sounds. A melody is a combination of pitches and durations that make a musical statement similar to a sentence. Melodies may consist of one or more smaller sections (phrases) similar to clauses in a sentence. Pitch direction describes the movement of pitch patterns or melodies, which may move upward, downward or stay the same. Students in the middle years should: become familiar with the use of melodic and rhythmic themes in music they listen to and create apply their knowledge of direction and shape of melodies to their own explorations examine why different tonal patterns (scales) are sometimes associated with different moods (eg., minor -- sad or melancholy, or major -- happy) distinguish phrases in melodies in music they listen to and create begin to discover how various cultures from around the world use tonal patterns and melody.

Timbre Timbre describes the quality or "colour" of sound. Timbre is determined by those characteristics of sound that help us distinguish one sound from another. In the middle years, investigation should continue into timbral description. As well, students should begin to discover how timbre can be changed and the effect this can have on a musical composition. Timbral changes can occur as simply as adjusting the tone controls on a stereo, dampening a ringing object (like a piece of pipe or clay pot) with a piece of tape, or using a pick verses a finger to pluck a string on a ukulele. Students in the middle years should: continue to explore, describe and use the distinctive characteristics and qualities of sounds that are found in music, speech and the environment continue to explore the timbres found in the music of various cultures in their sound explorations, begin to arrange timbres to compliment and/or contrast each other begin to explore how to modify the timbre of sound-producing instruments, including traditional, homemade and those of various cultures.

Dynamics Dynamics describe the degree of loudness or softness of sounds in relationship to what effect or mood is being communicated. Students in the middle years should: investigate ways that varying the dynamic levels in music and other sounds can be used for different purposes continue to discover how gradually increasing (crescendo) or gradually decreasing (decrescendo) the dynamics in sound can be used for different effects recognize that both subtle and obvious variations in dynamic levels affect the expressiveness of music.

Texture Texture is the combination and layering of different sounds in music. Composers create various textures by combining sounds, instruments or voices to achieve expressive effects. The texture may be thick, thin, dense or transparent. Harmony is one aspect of texture. Harmony occurs when two or more sounds are heard simultaneously. Students in the middle years should: continue to recognize, explore and discuss a wide variety of textures in music they hear and create continue to develop an awareness of the various uses of harmony in a wide variety of music apply their knowledge of harmony in their own musical explorations continue to discover how texture is used in various ways in music from around the world.

Principles of Composition

Exploration related to the elements of music and principles of composition should be taught within a context of interest to the students. Students need to realize it is the interaction, not the isolation, of individual elements and principles that is important in music.

The following outlines what the students should experience for the principles of composition in the middle years:

Variety A musician or composer uses variety within a musical composition to create interest. Variety is created by using or altering different elements in numerous ways. Variety is often created through the use of contrast, such as loud to soft dynamics, harsh to smooth timbres and thick to thin textures. A composer might, for example, repeat a previously heard melody twice as fast (tempo change) or in a different key (tonality change). Students in the middle years should: understand that variety is concerned with difference (tonality changes, tempo differences, timbral choices) discover ways in which variety can be used in their own sound explorations and other music begin to analyse contemporary music familiar to them to discover the different methods popular artists use to create variety today.

Repetition Musicians and composers use repetition to help the listener become familiar with the major ideas or themes of a musical work. The restatement of a particular melody, theme or rhythm often draws the audience back to an idea or thought that the musician or composer wants to communicate. Repetition also serves to unify many compositions and draw attention to ideas that are central to the work. Students in the middle years should: explore and discuss ways repetition is used in the music they create and listen to.

Balance Balance in music traditionally has referred to the relative volume of various sounds. It can also pertain to the equalization of other elements. For instance, a musician can try to balance timbres through instrument selection in order to maintain a desired sound or effect. Balance could also refer to similarities of style or duration in the `A' sections of a composition in `A B A' form. A lack of balance can also be used to create a desired effect. A very loud sound in a quiet section might redirect the listener's attention or introduce a different theme or melody. Students in the middle years should: continue to explore the reasons balance is important to music explore different ways of creating balance in their own sound explorations and other music learn that upsetting the balance in music can also be used to create interest.

Acoustics Acoustics pertains to the properties or qualities of sound transmission in a space. This includes the way places such as meeting halls, classrooms or an outdoor field reinforce, absorb and reflect sound. Students can explore the many ways acoustics can be changed. For example, a student could play a drum in an empty closet and then again when it is full of clothing. The acoustics of a space can also alter the timbre of a sound by reinforcing or absorbing certain parts (frequencies) of the sound. A musician or composer might create a piece of music for a particular space such as a specific church, or a general space such as "outdoors". Students in the middle years should: continue to explore and discuss the acoustics of a variety of spaces using various sound producing objects.

Tension and Resolution Tension can be created in music through the use of many different elements. For example, a building of dynamics, a rising of a melodic line or the use of more dissonant harmony could all lead to an increase in tension. Resolution is a common occurrence after the building of tension. This involves the manipulation of the elements to create a sense of release or relaxation. Resolution might be created by a change in dynamics, a change in height of melody, or movement from a dissonant to consonant harmony. In many forms of music, tension builds to a climatic peak and is followed by a brief concluding resolution to finish the work. This type of action is sometimes referred to as biological form -- a gradual building of interest and knowledge followed by a resolving climax and a rapid end. Students in the middle years should: explore how the building of tension can add excitement or interest to their own compositions and those of others explore how the resolution of tension in music can add to the feeling of relaxation by the listener explore the concept of biological form in music that they hear and create.

Transition Transition in music typically involves the connection of ideas or "bridging" of one part of the music to another. Transitional material might foreshadow material that will be forthcoming or include the changing of the tonality from major to minor. Transitions might be subtle and difficult to initially notice or very prominent in order to attract attention. Students in the middle years should: investigate ways that they and others can use the principle of transition in both subtle and evident ways in composition.

Unity Unity is the principle of composition in which all the separate parts work together to make a complete whole. The elements, ideas and principles are combined in such a way that all are essential to the product. Students in the middle years should: continue to develop an understanding of various forms in the music they listen to and discuss begin to use form purposefully in their sound compositions continue to develop an understanding of how the elements of music and principles of composition inter-relate to create unity in music.