C. Processes of Science
......Processes of Science Menu
The scientifically literate person uses processes of science in solving problems, making decisions, and furthering understanding of society and the environment.
Complex or integrated processes include those which are more basic. Intellectual skills are acquired and practised throughout life so that eventually some control over these processes can facilitate learning.
This can provide information processing and problem solving abilities that go beyond any curriculum.
Process skills such as accessing and processing information, applying knowledge of scientific principles to the analysis of issues, identifying value positions, and reaching consensus are believed to include the more basic processes of science.
The basic processes of science are:
C1 classifying D(K-12)
Classifying is a systematic procedure used to impose order on collections of objects or events.
Example:
Grouping animals into their phyla or arranging the elements into the periodic table are examples of classifying.
C2 communicating D(K-12)
Communicating is any one of several procedures for transmitting information from one person to another.
Example:
Writing reports, or participating in discussions in class are examples of communicating.
C3 observing and describing D(K-12)
This is the most basic process of science. The senses are used to obtain information about the environment.
Example:
During an investigation, a student writes a paragraph recording the progress of a chemical reaction between hot copper metal and sulphur vapour.
C4 working cooperatively D(K-12)
This involves an individual working productively as a member of a team for the benefit of the team's goals.
Example:
Students should share responsibilities in the completion of an experiment.
C5 measuring D(K-12)
An instrument is used to obtain a quantitative value associated with some characteristic of an object or an event.
Example:
The length of a metal bar can be determined to the nearest millimetre with an appropriate measuring device.
C6 questioning P(K-1), D(2-12)
It is the ability to raise problems or points for investigation or discussion.
Example:
A student should be able to create directed questions about observed events. When migratory birds are observed, questions such as, "Why do birds flock to migrate?", "Do some birds migrate singly?", and "How do birds know where to go?" should direct further inquiry.
C7 using numbers P(K-1), D(2-12)
This involves counting or measuring to express ideas, observations, or relationships, often as a complement to the use of words.
Example:
1 litre contains 1 000 millilitres.
C8 hypothesizing P(1-2), D(3-12)
Hypothesizing is stating a tentative generalization which may be used to explain a relatively large number of events. It is subject to immediate or eventual testing by experiments.
Example:
Making predictions about the importance of various components of a pendulum which may influence its period is an example of hypothesizing.
C9 inferring P(1-2), D(3-12)
It is explaining an observation in terms of previous experience.
Example:
After noticing that saline sloughs have a different insect population than fresher sloughs, one might infer that small changes in an environment can affect populations.
C10 predicting P(1-2), D(3-12)
This involves determining future outcomes on the basis of previous information.
Example:
Given the results of the hourly population counts in a yeast culture over a 4 hour period, one could attempt to predict the population after 5 hours.
C11 controlling variables P(1-2), D(3-12)
Controlling variables is based on identifying and managing the conditions that may influence a situation or event.
Examples:
If all other factors which may be important in plant growth are identified and made similar (controlled), the effect of gibberellic acid can be observed.
In order to test the effect of fertilizer on plant growth, all other factors which may be important in plant growth must be identified and controlled so that the effect of the fertilizer can be determined.
C12 interpreting data P(2), D(3-12)
This important process is based on finding a pattern in a collection of data. It leads to a generalization.
Example:
Concluding that the mass of the pendulum bob does not affect the period of a pendulum might be based on the similarity of periods of 100 g, 200 g, and 300 g pendulums.
C13 formulating models P(2-6), D(7-12)
Models are used to represent an object, event, or process.
Example:
Vector descriptions of how forces interact are models.
C14 problem solving P(2-8), D(9-12)
Scientific knowledge is generated by, and used for, asking questions concerning the natural world. Quantitative methods are frequently employed.
Example:
A knowledge of genetics and the techniques of recombinant DNA are used to create bacteria which produce insulin.
It is examining scientific ideas and concepts to determine their essence or meaning.
Examples:
Determining whether a hypothesis is tenable requires analysis.
Determining which amino acid sequence produces insulin requires analysis.
C16 designing experiments P(3-8), D(9-12)
Designing experiments involves planning a series of data-gathering operations which will provide a basis for testing a hypothesis or answering a question.
Example:
Automobile manufacturers test seat belt performance in crash tests.
C17 using mathematics P(6), D(7-12)
When using mathematics, numeric or spatial relationships are expressed in abstract terms.
Example:
Projectile trajectories can be predicted using mathematics.
C18 using time-space relationships P(6-7), D(8-12)
These are the two criteria used to describe the location of things or events.
Example:
Describe the migratory paths of the barren lands caribou.
C19 consensus making P(6-8), D(9-12)
Consensus making is reaching an agreement when a diversity of opinions exist.
Examples:
A discussion of the disposal of toxic waste, based on research, gives a group of students the opportunity to develop a position they will be using in a debate.
Scientists were initially divided regarding the cold fusion debate. They held conferences but were still unable to agree on this issue. Further experimental results were needed.
C20 defining operationally P(7-9), D(10-12)
It is producing a definition of a thing or event by giving a physical description or the results of a given procedure.
Example:
An acid turns blue litmus paper red and tastes sour.
C21 synthesizing P(9-10), D(11-12)
Synthesizing involves combining parts into a complex whole.
Examples:
Polymers can be produced through the combination of simpler monomers.
A student essay may involve the synthesis of a wide variety of knowledge, skills, attitudes, and processes.