Module 1: Introduction to Communication

Time

20 hours

Module Description

This compulsory module is an introduction to Communication Studies 20. It provides students with rudimentary knowledge that can be applied and further explored in the optional modules that follow. Module 1 covers all language processes (speaking , listening, writing, reading, viewing, and representing) and considers communication from the communicator's and the receiver's points of view.

Purposes

• to convince students of the importance of effective communication in all aspects of their lives
• to introduce students to the components of communication
• to convince students of the importance of understanding purpose, occasion, and audience in any communication situation.

Foundational Objectives

Students will:

• recognize the importance of effective communication in various situations
• recognize that communication is a multi-faceted process
• recognize that communication involves problem solving and decision making
• recognize that speech is an important tool for thinking, learning, and communicating
• recognize listening as an active, constructive process
• recognize writing as a constructive, meaningful process
• write confidently in a variety of formats for a variety of purposes and audiences
• recognize reading as an active, constructive process

Specific Learning Objectives

Students will:

• recognize the importance of effective communication in one's personal life
• recognize the importance of effective communication in work and professions
• recognize the importance of effective communication in lifelong learning experiences
• recognize that communication is an interactive process between sender and receiver
• recognize the role of culture in communication
• consider purpose, occasion, and audience in communication endeavours
• approach communication experiences (both sending and receiving) as active, thinking participants
• consider the communicator's moral and ethical responsibilities
• recognize the need for formal and informal oral communication
• practise basic oral communication skills
• participate in oral communication experiences by listening critically and attentively
• recognize the value of what is known as "the writing process"
• practise writing for informational and practical purposes
• read technical and informational material critically and with purpose

Topics

Components of Communication
Purpose, Occasion, and Audience
Culture and Communication
Ethics in Communication
Contexts for Communication
Types of Communication

Suggested Resources

• English language arts bibliography for grade 11
• Examples of various types of technical writing
• Recorded speeches and guest speakers
• Internet
• Examples of visual, audio, multimedia aids

Teacher Information for Module 1

This section includes information that may be of use to the teacher in planning activities. However, teachers should keep in mind that communication is an evolving field. Many resources are available, and will continue to become available, containing u p to date and much more extensive information than can be presented in a curriculum guide such as this one. The information in this section provides a basic introduction only to the field of communication. For more information, teachers should refer to th e English language arts bibliography for grade 11.

Note: It is not intended that the information here be taught routinely, outside of the context of students' communication experiences. Teachers may incorporate the information in mini-lessons or other learning activities, as need arises. Such mini-lessons may be conducted with the whole class, small groups, or individual students, depending upon need.

Components of Communication

Communication is effective when a concise and clear message is delivered well, received successfully, and understood fully. The process of communication has the following distinct components:

• the sender
• the message
• the medium
• the receiver
• feedback.

Purpose, Occasion, and Audience

All effective communicators must consider purpose, occasion, and audience when planning their presentations. Because the communication process involves both sending and receiving, it stands to reason that communication will be most effective when the writer or speaker considers the variables that will affect reception of his or her message.

Culture and Communication

Culture refers to the human-made environment. "Culture includes all the material objects and possessions that a social group invents or acquires. Even more important, it includes the group's less tangible creations: the shared customs and values t hat bind its members together and give them a sense of commonality" (Trenholm, 1995, p. 314).

It used to be that people communicated only with others inside their own cultural group. Customs and values affecting communication were shared and understood. This is no longer true. We now live in the "global village" and it is common for people to communicate interculturally, either in person or through advanced electronic communication methods. Today, intercultural communication affects people in their personal and social lives, the classroom, and the workplace.

To communicate interculturally, people must know their own practices regarding communication, and recognize that these are cultural and not necessarily universal. Attitudes are the biggest impediment to successful communication among cultures. Trenholm describes attitudes that diminish understanding as follows:

• stereotypes and prejudices
• assumptions of similarity
• culture shock
• ethnocentrism.

Ethics in Communication

Communicators must always consider how their communication affects their audience and others involved with the project (e.g., employers, friends, co-workers). Communicators have ethical responsibilities to themselves, individual members of their audience or readership, and society as a whole.

As a person's use of written and spoken language reveals his or her inner self to others, communicators have a responsibility to avoid conscious misrepresentation of themselves, and to write and speak with an attitude of self-respect.

Spoken and written language should not be used consciously to mislead or convince people to take action which is not in their own best interests (e.g., sales persons persuading customers to overbuy or to buy products not suitable to their needs). Communicators have an ethical obligation to make their goal and its possible outcomes known to the audience, and not to mislead their audience in any way.

Communicators have an ethical responsibility to consider the values they impart through their activities. They must recognize the power of language and their own potential to influence, and ensure that their spoken and written words reflect an ethical attitude toward society and humanity.

To help maintain fair and ethical behaviour, communicators should review a checklist such as the following:

• Have I used appropriate language that does not discriminate or stereotype by age, gender, religion, ethnic background, or ability?
• Have I prepared my speech or written document with an attitude of respect for my audience?
• Have I been honest in my presentation of information?
• Have I chosen words that might be misleading?
• Have I used logical rather than manipulative or exploitative arguments?
• Have I presented comparable facts in a similar fashion (e.g., listing sales figures) to avoid manipulating the reader/listener?
• Have I carefully considered the effects or consequences of my presentation?
• Have I made clear what is fact and what is opinion?
• Are my research sources reliable?
• Have I identified my sources and quoted accurately?
• Have I been careful not to use confidential or classified information?
• When presenting instructions or technical information, have I included enough information to avoid harming the audience in any way or damaging equipment?
• Have I warned the audience of all possible hazards in specific terms?
• Have I worked co-operatively with others involved in the project?

Guidelines for choosing appropriate language include the following:

• do not describe people in terms of stereotypes
• do not identify a person by sex, race, religion, ethnic background, or handicap
• use gender-neutral language.

Ethics in Persuasion

Much communication is intended to persuade (persuade a friend to do something, persuade someone to adopt a certain point of view, persuade people to buy a product, persuade people to use certain safety practices, etc.). Informed communicators and audience members are familiar with persuasive devices. Writers and speakers should remember their ethical responsibilities and not use dishonest or misleading persuasive appeals, neither in formal situations nor in their personal lives.

Many persuasive appeals are a part of daily life (e.g., in television and magazine advertising, in political and fund-raising campaigns). The degree to which such behaviour is acceptable in a community or society is subjective. It is the communicator's responsibility to use good judgement and always consider the needs of the audience or readership. It is the receiver's responsibility to be vigilant and to speak out against unethical behaviour in communication.

Guidelines for developing ethical principles in communication follow:

• Be truthful. It is unethical to be untruthful. Intentional untruthfulness damages all concerned.

• Prepare adequately. It is unethical to waste an audience's or reader's time. You have an ethical obligation to present ideas that you believe in and for which you have support.

• Give credit to original sources. It is unethical to present phrases, sentences, and ideas of others as if they were your own. When researching, keep track of all sources from which you derived material that was not your own. When you want to acknowledge a source while actually delivering a talk, you may refer to the name of the individual or the title of the general work. If you are presenting a relatively long talk that contains material from a number of sources, you may wish to make available a handout that lists your sources. In written work, credit your sources in the text, footnotes, or reference notes, as appropriate.

• Become familiar with the term "intellectual property". Intellectual property refers to ideas and creations that are not necessarily copyrighted, but do belong to one person. For example, some artists refer to their work as intellectual property. A theory of political science could also be referred to as intellectual property. When you use or refer to another person's intellectual property, you must credit him or her.

• Do what you can to be a participant in the "global village". Learn about the communication practices of other cultures. Gain knowledge to overcome stereotypes and prejudices so that you can treat all people with respect.

• Do all you can to foster potential in yourself and others. It is not ethical to mislead an audience intentionally or give listeners partial information which could result in them making poorly informed decisions. Communicators should not manipulate people for selfish reasons.

Communicator's Code As a communicator, committed to the highest standards of performance and ethical behaviour, I will: use language and visuals with precision prefer simple, direct expressions of ideas satisfy the audience's need for information, not my own need for self-expression hold myself responsible for how well my audience understands my message respect the work of colleagues, knowing that a communication problem may have more than one solution strive continuously to improve my competence in communication promote a climate that encourages the exercise of professional judgement. (Adapted from Agency for Instructional Technology and South-Western Educational Publishing, 1996, Communication Studies 2000 - Module Three, Workplace Writing - Learner's Guide, p. 122)

Contexts for Communication

Communication can be a simple verbal exchange between friends, or it can be a formal event that requires much preparation. Because it is an exchange, it always involves at least two language processes (for example, speaking and listening) and sometimes involves all language processes: speaking, listening, reading, writing, viewing, and representing.

Effective communication is necessary in one's personal life, in work and professions, and in lifelong learning situations. In this introductory module, students should come to understand that success in all of these is greatly enhanced by effective communication.

Within the communication contexts, people experience four types of communication: interpersonal, group, public, and mass.

Teaching the Introductory Module

In this module, students should learn that the ability to communicate effectively is one of the most useful tools they can take away from secondary school. Whatever their plans are for their lives after Grade 12, the ability to communicate will help them enormously. For the teacher, the key to teaching this course successfully is encouraging students to understand the relevance of all activities, no matter what modules are selected.
In teaching the introductory module, teachers might proceed in the following way:

• Mini-lessons and activities on the module's major concepts:
  • components of communication
  • purpose, occasion, and audience
  • culture and communication
  • ethics in communication
  • contexts for communication
  • types of communication.

• Involvement of students in three major projects:
  • one that relates to personal life
  • one that relates to a workplace
  • one that relates to lifelong learning.

• Alternatively, three groups of students could work on three different projects (i.e., related to personal life, workplace, lifelong learning) and present their project to the rest of the class.

• In these major projects, students should:
  • identify the intended audience and purpose
  • establish the communication as interpersonal, group, or public
  • propose the content
  • propose the method of communication (panel discussion, persuasive talk, how-to manual, slide presentation, etc.)
  • incorporate any necessary visual or audio aids
  • present the project appropriately
  • reflect on the relevance of the project to personal life, the workplace, or lifelong learning
  • reflect on the various communication skills used in all aspects of the project.

Suggested Activities for Module 1

This section includes brief descriptions of activities that teachers can use for this module. The activities are suggestions only, and teachers should adapt and add other activities appropriate for their students and teaching styles.

Note: Teachers should take care to introduce all activities within the context of their applicability to effective communication in personal life, work, and lifelong learning. Activities and projects should be relevant to students' lives, and whenever possible students should create their own scenarios for communication projects. Mini-lessons related to module content and language processes should be taught to individual students, small groups, or the whole class as demanded by need.

Components of Communication

Activity: Communication Self-assessment

A teacher introducing this course may wish to have each student fill out a Self-assessment for Effective Communication.

Students could make an assessment of their own responses, then discuss their responses in small groups, determining where individuals and groups can improve communication abilities, and deciding how they might set goals for improving communication.

This checklist is a sample only. Teachers may construct their own checklists, stressing communication knowledge and skills necessary for their particular classroom situations.

Activity: Understanding Components of Communication

In order for any communication to take place, there must be a suitable medium, a sender, a message, a receiver, and feedback.

Have students independently or in groups create their own visuals showing how this happens. When they have their visuals constructed, ask them to add an example of a message being communicated, either in speech or in writing. Groups or individuals may then explain their visuals to the rest of the class. (Each of these should be somewhat different).

A sample visual appears below.

Activity: Visually Representing Communication

Have students work individually or in groups to make a collage illustrating their ideas about the communication process. They may use magazine clippings, sketches, and photographs.

Activity: Recognizing, Reproducing, and Creating Symbols

Have students collect or reproduce common symbols that are used daily to communicate without words (e.g., the interact symbol for banking cards, stop signs, the red cross, tourist information centres). If they find some of the common symbols confusing, they might try redesigning them. Also, have students create their own symbols to be used without words (e.g., symbols for reading, viewing, or listening; symbols for school subjects or for sports). Suggest that students display their symbols to see if th e messages are clear enough to be understood.

Discuss whether some symbols evoke differing responses in people depending on their backgrounds and experiences.

Activity: Thinking About Daily Communication

Have students divide a piece of paper into four parts labelled Speaking, Listening, Reading, and Writing. In each part, have students write down as many examples as possible of their activities in one day in each of these four areas. Then, in each of t he four parts, write Viewing and/or Representing if they have used either of these two supporting processes to enhance speaking, listening, reading, or writing.

After filling in the four-part communication activity report, have students prepare a written summary of their individual communication experiences. Have students answer questions like the following:

• Which type of communication skill do you use most frequently?
• Choosing one of your examples, suggest how that skill could be reinforced by using one or more of the other communication skills.
• Which communication skill do you think is your strongest? Why?
• Which skill do you think needs the most improvement? Why?

Have students share their summary with a group or with the class and discuss possible ways of improving the different skill areas (e.g., working in pairs with someone who has strengths that counteract another student's weaknesses and vice versa).

Activity: Communicating Without Words

Involve students in a class exercise in which they communicate a message to the group (or to a partner with the group observing), using only body language, actions, and symbols (no words). The message might be one the teacher gives them or one they create themselves ahead of time. Some examples of messages follow:

• Ask directions to the nearest laundromat.
• Explain to a waiter in a restaurant that your meal is cold.
• Request a ticket to Calgary (from an airline company).

Receivers of the communication will state the message as they understand it and ask questions if they are confused. Questions may be answered with a nod or a shake of the head.

After the activity, have students discuss how they felt as communicators or as interpreters of the messages. Observers will discuss observed behaviours and reactions as well as their own reactions.

Activity: Speaking to Give Directions; Listening to Follow Directions

Have students participate in an exercise which asks them to follow spoken directions only, without the benefit of seeing any gestures, body language, or writing (e.g., listeners create a diagram similar to one which only the speaker sees, as the speaker gives directions for the diagram construction). Try this exercise two ways: first, with the listener not allowed to ask questions; then, allow listeners to ask questions. This exercise works well in pairs, with students taking turns at both speaking and listening/ responding.

After the activity, have students discuss the exercise in pairs, and then in the larger groups.

Activity: Communication Required for Occupations

Have students individually chart the communication skills which will be needed for various occupations they are interested in, and state how these communication skills might be used. (An example "Communication Required for Various Occupation")

Students will learn from one another if they post their charts and discuss them with others.

Communication Required for Various Occupations

Purpose, Occasion, and Audience

Activity: Speaking for a Variety of Purposes

Have students selectively view portions of several different news, community, educational, or informational television programs during the length of a week, searching for and recording examples of speaking to inform, speaking to entertain, speaking to persuade, and speaking to explain. Students may then construct a chart to be shared with a classmate, a small group, the teacher, or the whole class, when the project is finished. A sample chart is shown below.

Activity: Purpose of Technical Writing

To establish the difference between the purpose of technical writing (as opposed to the purpose of creative writing, for example), have students study a poem about a popular sport (e.g., figure skating, football, baseball, volleyball, skiing). Then, after responding to the poem and discussing it, students construct a technical description of how to play the sport depicted in the poem (or how to perform a technique correctly). This activity may be done individually or in groups. The opposite activity could also be done, starting with a set of technical guidelines (regarding canoeing, for example) then progressing to the writing of a poem or a creative piece of a different format.

Sample Recording Chart: Various Purposes for Speaking

Activity: Writing for the Audience

Have students each locate a short passage (about 200 words) from a technical article addressed to an expert audience or addressed to a technician. If possible, each student should have a different article. Have each student rewrite the passage found so that it is clear and interesting to the general reader. (The original article should be from a familiar field of interest for the student.)

Activity: Document User Profiles

Have students conduct a user profile analysis, imagining a particular scenario. For example, they will be producing a procedures manual for use of equipment in the visual art classroom or the chemistry lab. Have students design their own Reader Profile form, or adapt the one below. They should complete the profile for several typical users of the space for which they are writing the manual, and then prepare a brief report on their findings, summarizing how the information gathered might help them prepare the manual.

Sample Reader Profile Purpose: To complete a user analysis for the document "Procedures for Use of Equipment in the Visual Art Room" Reader's Name: ________________________________ Reader's Position: Student Teacher Intern Teacher Maintenance Other _____________ If student, what grade? ______________ Ask sample readers to complete the following questions: What is your educational background, especially in the area of visual art? _____________ ____________________________________________________________________ With what visual art equipment are you already very familiar? ______________________ ____________________________________________________________________ How often do you use the equipment? _______________________________________ How will you use the procedures manual? Skim it___ Study it carefully at one sitting___ Read sections on a "need to know" basis___ Use it to instruct others___ Other ________ Would you be willing to give feedback on a draft of the document? _________________ Is there a format you prefer for a document such as the one being prepared? __________ ____________________________________________________________________ Is there a format for equipment or procedures manuals that you have found to be ineffective? ___________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ Do you think a manual such as this one will be useful to you? ______________________ ____________________________________________________________________

Activity: Audience Analysis for a Speech

Have students complete an Audience Analysis Checklist. Students decide the hypothetical audience for whom they wish to complete the checklist. The situations portrayed should be ones in which the students can realistically see themselves. For example, a student who has been sponsored by the local Rotary Club for a trip to Ottawa could complete a checklist for the Rotarians as audience members for a possible talk on the trip. A sample checklist appears below.

Sample Audience Analysis Checklist Demographics Is the audience weighted toward a particular age? Children ___ Teens ___ Young Adults ___ Adults ___ Seniors ___ Mixed ___ Is the audience more one gender than the other? ____________________________________ If so, why? ________________________________________________________________ Does the audience comprise a particular cultural group or is it diverse? ____________________ _________________________________________________________________________ Is the audience from a particular geographic area? ___________________________________ Social Commonalties Work the audience members have in common: ______________________________________ Clubs/social groups the audience members have in common: ____________________________ Education experiences the audience members have in common: __________________________ Other commonalties: _________________________________________________________ Audience Characteristics Related to the Speech Interest in the topic: Low ____ High ____ Neutral ____ Mixed ____ Unknown ____ Prior knowledge of the topic: Great ____ Little ____ Some ____ Mixed ____ Unknown ____ Attitude toward the topic: Receptive ___ Antagonistic ___ Neutral ___ Mixed ___ Unknown ___ Other comments or information about the audience:

Culture and Communication

Activity: Language Barriers

Ask small groups of students to imagine that they are a delegation on personal or company business in another country and they do not know the language. Ask each small group to create a scenario related to their business. They should keep their scenario secret from other groups. The following are examples:

• they are to check out hotels, restaurants, and conference sites to see if they will be the right size and price range for an upcoming international conference
• they are looking for long-lost relatives
• they are owners of a small adventure holiday company trying to find information on climbing sites and guided expeditions in the area.

Have each small group try to communicate with another group to find the information needed, without using verbal language. Afterwards, debrief through discussion or journal writing. Ask students to think about the following questions:

• Is it possible to communicate without verbal language?
• What is necessary in order to do so?
• What attitudes might hinder communication?
• What attitudes might help?

Activity: Guest Speaker

Invite an Elder or other expert on a particular culture to the classroom. Ask that person to speak to students about communication protocol and customs in the culture. (Find out ahead of time what protocol might be involved in inviting and thanking the particular guest.)

Activity: Discussion

Discuss the following quote: "The difficulty with being thrust into a global village is that we do not yet know how to live like villagers; there are too many of `us' who do not want to live with `them'" (Porter & Samovar, 1991, p. 6).

Students might discuss the following questions:

• What is meant by the global village?
• What has created the global village?
• What are the advantages and disadvantages of living in the global village?
• What are the challenges?
• What does the global village concept mean for communication?

Ethics in Communication

Activity: Gender-neutral Language

Prepare ahead of time an article that is full of gender-specific nouns (e.g., fireman), phrases (e.g., fellow workers), and singular pronouns (he, she). Have students in small groups rewrite the article finding ways to avoid gender-specific language.

Activity: Subjectivity of Ethics in a Society

Students might be asked to consider the subjectivity of ethics by looking at television advertising or political campaigns. They might discuss the degree to which emotional appeals are allowed and accepted as legitimate argument.

Activity: Making Ethical Decisions

Technical writers strive not to deceive by omission. Sometimes this puts them in a difficult situation, if they are in conflict with what their supervisors or clients expect them to do. Sometimes writers must make ethical decisions which may not be in keeping with their supervisor's wishes.

Discuss omission as it relates to history. What people, events, and stories do the students know about that may have been omitted from history books and other documents? What are the reasons for and effects of this type of omission?

Ask students the following: Have you ever been in a situation where you told only part of the story? For example, Melanie asks you, "What did Jim say about me?" You state only part of what Jim said because you feel obligated to Jim not to tel l everything, or perhaps because it is to your advantage not to tell Melanie everything.

In their journals, have students write about a time when they told just part of the story and misrepresented what really happened. Why did they leave out some of the story? Were they right to do it?

Activity: Omission in Advertising

Have students examine several advertisements in magazines or newspapers to determine which ones have attempted to deceive by omission. Ask them to photocopy four or five of them (or clip them out if the magazine is not to be saved). Have students list under each of their choices any information which is not provided for the readers, but which may be important in the final decision to purchase (or not to purchase) the product.

Ask each student to choose one of the advertisements and recreate it, making changes that would more accurately reflect a technical writer's responsibility to represent the facts.

Activity: Ethics in Persuasive Arguing

Ask students to look for examples of advertisements, info-mercials, and speeches where persuasion plays a role. Have them bring recorded examples to class, if possible. What persuasive devices do the speakers use? Do the speakers use sound logic and reasoning, or do they use emotional appeals and appeals to audience needs? Are any of the persuasive devices used in an unethical manner? What makes something unethical? Have students discuss.

Activity: Correct Documentation of Sources

Conduct a mini-lesson on when and how to credit sources in a speech and a piece of writing. Most Secondary Level students know how to credit direct quotations, but are unsure of the rules for indirect quotation and for use of intellectual property. Dis cuss the terms "intellectual property" and "public domain".

Have students write a brief report on a topic of interest to them. In this report they must include:

• one direct quotation
• one indirect quotation
• one reference to an idea or theory that belongs to one person (e.g., Einstein's theory of relativity).

The purpose is to familiarize students with proper and ethical crediting of words and ideas.

Sample Projects

Sample Project: Marketing Presentation

Note: This activity is adapted from Oberg, 1994, pp. 146-147.

Although an activity like this could apply in several sections of the guide, it is included here as a sample activity to provide students with an opportunity to create a communication scenario. Students will work in groups and assume that each group is a marketing team with the responsibility for developing and presenting a marketing strategy for a product or service.

1. The Activity

Each group is to prepare a 10-12 minute presentation in which they:

• introduce the members of the group to the board of directors
• describe the product or service they will be marketing
• explain the strategy they will use to sell their idea
• explain the benefits of this product or service to both the public and their supporting corporation.

2. Visual Aids

Each group will prepare two visual aids: the first visual will display the name and logo of the group's agency; the second will be used in the group presentation to demonstrate either how the group's idea works, or what the benefits of the idea will be .

3. Supporting Materials

Each group will create a one-page handout which summarizes (using both print and visuals, if possible) the message of the presentation.

It is the responsibility of the group to decide what product or service they will market. Ideas may range from very common (e.g., a snow shovelling service) to original (e.g., making birthday cakes for pets). However, members of the group must remember that they need to gain approval from the board of directors. Therefore, they must be certain there is a market for the product or service, and that it is significantly different from other products or services already on the market. They need to show that they will be meeting a consumer need that is not being met at present.

4. Presentation

The groups will orally present their plans to the rest of the class. During the presentation each group member is expected to take an equal, active role. The listeners should take the role of company heads, who will determine whether the marketing plan is convincing. After each presentation, the company heads could meet in small groups and make a decision.

5. Assessment

Following are samples of a peer assessment checklist, a self-assessment checklist, and a teacher assessment checklist for assessing students' presentation skills for this group activity.

6. Follow Up

Following the assessment, each group should meet to discuss how it could improve its communication effort, focusing on the elements that help create a positive impression.

Each individual should also reflect on how he or she could improve oral communication abilities. Journal writing is one method of individual reflection. A teacher-student conference is another.

Sample Project: How-to Manual or Pamphlet

Each student should select a product, process, etc. and create a how-to manual or pamphlet. The teacher should develop criteria to guide the projects and ensure that students experience various aspects of communication through their work. The following are examples:

• make use of at least two types of research
• include a visual aid of some kind
• create an attractive design for the manual or pamphlet
• design some sort of "field test" for the manual or pamphlet
• prepare an oral presentation of the project.

Sample Project: Writing

Have individual students complete a technical writing assignment, seeing it through all the stages of the writing process. They can choose the type of project they want to do, but it should be approved by the instructor. They might choose to write a technical report, an information pamphlet, an annual report for a group they belong to, etc.

Integration with other subject areas should be encouraged. For example, a student might use a biology report for this assignment. The criteria for assessment will be different for each course (i.e., Biology, Communication Studies). In Communication Studies 20, assessment will be based on the style and effectiveness of the written communication. Teachers of the two courses should discuss the student's proposal so that expectations are clear.

Sample Project: Speaking

Have individual students complete a speaking assignment, seeing it through all the stages from choosing a title to presenting the speech. They can choose the type of project they want to do, but it should be approved by the instructor. They might choose one of the following suggestions:

• a persuasive speech (such as a presentation to city council on a community issue)
• an entertaining speech (such as a keynote address at a banquet)
• an informative speech (such as a presentation of historical or technical information).

Integration with other subject areas should be encouraged. For example, there is no reason why a student should not connect an oral presentation for social studies with this assignment. The criteria for assessment will be different for each course. In Communication Studies 20, assessment will be based on the organization, presentation, and effectiveness of the written communication.

Such integration with other subjects gives a real purpose to a speaking assignment. However, it is important that teachers of the two courses discuss the student's proposal so that expectations are clear.

A sample assessment checklist for formal speaking.

Note: Teachers should conclude each module with discussion or other reflective activity that encourages students to make and understand connections between the module and communication in people's personal lives, work experiences, and lifelong learning.

Sample Checklist for Assessment of a Formal Talk

Speaker: ______________________________ Date: ______________________________ Assessor (teacher, student, other): ______________________________________________ Use the following scale to assess each part of the presentation. 1 = Excellent, 2 = Good, 3 = Average, 4 = Fair, 5= Weak Introduction ___ The introduction gained audience attention. ___ The introduction related the topic to the audience. ___ The introduction revealed the organization of the talk. Topic Selection and Statement of Purpose ___ The topic selected was appropriate for the audience. ___ The topic selected was appropriate for the occasion. ___ The statement of purpose was clear and appropriate. Content ___ The main points were clearly identified. ___ The speaker supplied supporting materials for each point. ___ The talk was organized in a logical manner. ___ Transitions were used to connect smoothly the various segments of the talk. Attitude ___ The speaker demonstrated familiarity with the topic. ___ The speaker demonstrated sincerity. ___ The speaker demonstrated interest in the topic. Delivery ___ The vocal aspects of delivery--pitch, rate, volume, enunciation, and fluency--added to the message. ___ The bodily aspects of delivery--gestures, facial expressions, eye contact, and movement--added to the message. ___ Visual aids were used appropriately to clarify the message. Audience Analysis ___ The speaker demonstrated his or her sensitivity to the interest of the audience. ___ The speaker adapted the message to the knowledge level of the audience. ___ The speaker adapted the message to the attitudes of the audience. Conclusion ___ The first part of the conclusion let the audience know that the talk was about to end. ___ The conclusion reminded the audience of the central idea and of the main points of the speech. ___ The conclusion stated precisely what action could be taken in response to the talk. ___ The conclusion ended the talk in an upbeat manner that caused the audience members to respond positively to the speaker.

Note: Some items listed above (e.g., eye contact) can vary across cultures and in accordance with the situation. Teachers should also be aware of second language and dialectical differences that can be present in students' speech, and adapt their assessment instruments accordingly.

(Checklist adapted from Nelson & Pearson, 1981, pp. 263-264)

Sample Peer Assessment Checklist

Speaker: ______________________________ Date: _________________________________ Evaluator: ______________________________ Three things that I liked about the talk are: _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ Two suggestions for improvement are: _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ My overall assessment of the talk is: (Circle one) Excellent, Good, Average, Fair, Poor My main reason for giving this assessment is:

Sample Self-assessment Checklist

The following self-assessment form encourages each student to assess her or his own speaking efforts with a view to overcoming speech apprehension.

Rate yourself on a scale of 1-5 (5 being the best), showing how well you feel you accomplished the following; then comment to elaborate on your self-assessment.

Sample Checklist for Teacher Assessment of Student Presentation Skills

Speaker: ______________________________

Date: _________________________________

Note: Some items listed above (e.g., eye contact) can vary across cultures and in accordance with the situation. Teachers should also be aware of second language and dialectical differences that can be present in students' speech, and adapt their assessment instruments accordingly.