Module 6: Persuasive Speaking

Time

10 - 20 hours

Module Description

This optional module provides students with experience in clarifying a position, preparing arguments, and speaking to convince an audience. Students will have opportunities to explore various situations where they might be called upon to give a persuasive speech. They will also examine persuasive speeches from the point of view of the listener, and come to understand techniques used by speakers who are trying to convince. Students will also examine moral and ethical issues related to persuasion techniques.

Purposes

• to convince students of the importance of effective communication in all aspects of their lives
• to encourage students to see the benefits of being able to speak persuasively in various situations
• to provide students with opportunities to practise speaking persuasively

Foundational Objectives

• recognize the importance of effective communication in various situations
• recognize that communication is a multi-faceted process
• recognize that communication involves problem solving and decision making
• recognize that speech is an important tool for thinking, learning, and communication
• practise the behaviours of effective speakers
• speak clearly and confidently in a variety of situations
• recognize listening as an active, constructive process
• recognize reading as an active, constructive process
• enhance spoken and written presentations with appropriate visual, audio, multimedia, and other aids

Specific Learning Objectives

• recognize the importance of effective communication in one's personal life
• recognize the importance of effective communication in work and professions
• recognize the importance of effective communication in lifelong learning experiences
• select and apply appropriate methods of communication in various experiences
• recognize that communication is an interactive process between sender and receiver
• recognize the role of culture in communication
• approach communication experiences (both sending and receiving) as active, thinking participants
• solve problems and make decisions as part of the communication process
• consider various types of reasoning
• consider various appeals to an audience
• consider the communicator's moral and ethical responsibilities
• speak to persuade, demonstrate, or entertain
• set clear objectives for speaking and organize talks in a logical manner
• reflect on performance and activities for the purpose of self-assessment
• deliver formal and informal talks of varying types and lengths
• present arguments or information comprehensively and in a logical manner
• participate in oral communication experiences by listening critically and attentively
• read to make connections and gain information

Suggested Topics

Bringing about Change
Persuasive Goals
Organizing a Persuasive Speech
Persuasive Strategies
Critical Listening

Suggested Resources

• English language arts bibliography for grade 11
• Books on logic and reasoning
• Published and recorded persuasive speeches
• Guest speakers

Teacher Information for Module 6

This section includes information that may be of use to teachers selecting Module 6. However, teachers should keep in mind that the information provided here is basic; that the field of communication is an evolving one; and that new resources, including multimedia resources, will continue to become available. For more information on preparing, rehearsing, and delivering a speech, teachers should refer to the English language arts bibliography for grade 11. In addition, teachers might wish to consult with people who work in the field of communication in their own community.

To prepare and deliver persuasive speeches, students should:

• undertake an audience analysis
• conduct any research necessary
• create an introduction, main body, and conclusion for the talk
• consider an organizational pattern for the talk
• create an outline from which to speak
• rehearse alone and in front of others
• work to overcome their fear of speaking
• establish contact with the audience when they deliver their speeches
• establish their presence as a speaker from the time they are introduced.

Note: Persuasive speaking is an area in which students should pay particular attention to ethical considerations. Persuasion can be self-serving (e.g., persuasive sales techniques). Sometimes speakers justify the use of unethical methods by convincing themselves they are right and know better than the audience. When a speaker asks audience members to alter their beliefs, opinions, or behaviour, the speaker must be sure he or she is using facts and sound logic rather than unethical methods.

Purposes

Students are probably unaware of all the times they use persuasive speaking in the course of a day. Speaking to convince friends to watch one television program over another is an example of persuasive speaking. Sometimes people are frustrated by their inability to express themselves in order to convince others, even though they feel they have good reasons and sound arguments. This module will encourage students to become more confident in putting forward their points of view.

Students are exposed to the persuasive speaking of others on a daily basis as well (e.g., a television commercial in which a famous athlete tries to convince them to use a particular brand of shampoo). Politicians, spiritual leaders, sales people, and activists all use persuasive speaking as part of their daily communication activities.

This module will encourage students to develop their persuasive speaking abilities within ethical contexts. Through the exploration of persuasive techniques, they will also learn to be effective listeners and decision makers in response to the persuasive speaking of others.

Bringing About Change

Persuasive speakers plan to secure behavioural changes in their listeners by influencing thinking and motivating action. Persuasive speakers attempt to modify their listeners' attitudes and values, and alter their listeners' beliefs. Attitudes, values, and beliefs are interconnected, but differ in their meanings.

Organizing for Persuasive Speaking

Choosing a Topic

Students should keep the following three guidelines in mind when they are selecting a topic for their persuasive speech. Good topics are:

• controversial
• clear
• supported by evidence.

Stating the Proposition

Your proposition must be in the form of a declarative sentence which states a claim. There are four general types of propositions: propositions of fact, value, policy, and definition.

A fact claim is a statement about how things were in the past, how they are in the present, or how they will be in the future. A fact claim is not a fact; it only claims to be a fact. What makes it arguable is that the speaker has no direct way of establishing the truth of the claim. For example, "The Earth is round" is a proven fact. "In our right-handed world, left-handed people are discriminated against" is a fact claim. A persuasive speaker must provide arguments which build a case in favour of the claim, showing that the claim is probably true, or at least is more likely true than false.

Value claims are arguable statements concerning the relative merits of something which is measured subjectively (e.g., "Victoria is a better place to go for summer vacation than Calgary"). What makes a value claim arguable is that different people may disagree on the criteria used to evaluate something (e.g., weather, live entertainment, water sports). Differing value claims may be used to argue the value of a variety of topics (e.g., movies, styles of living, community organizations). Defending a value claim involves offering a set of criteria for consideration, defending the set of criteria as legitimate, and showing how applying the criteria justifies the claim.

A policy claim is a statement regarding the merits of one course of action as opposed to other courses of action. What makes a policy claim arguable is that, even though people and institutions may not be totally certain about the proper course of action to take, they still must act. To argue in defence of a policy claim is to state that, given the knowledge we have at the present time, it is best to act in the manner proposed rather than in some alternative way.

A definition claim is a statement telling how a particular word or phrase should be defined in a certain context. A definition claim is arguable because different people use the same word in contradictory ways. Therefore, the claims made by different people may also be contradictory, when these claims are based on their own special interpretations of word usage and meaning.

Principles of Persuasion

Students should keep the following principles in mind when they are preparing persuasive speeches:

• People are more likely to change their behaviour if the proposition asks for a small change rather than a large change in their lives (e.g., trying one vegetarian meal rather than becoming total vegetarians).

• People are more likely to consider changing their behaviour if the change will benefit them more than it will cost them. Consider the costs to the audience in terms of money, time commitment, energy, and skill.

• People are more likely to change their behaviour if the change meets their needs. Needs vary in different communities, in different schools, and in different individuals.

• People are more likely to change their behaviour if suggested change is approached gradually in the talk. Move from arguments which the audience will find most acceptable to those which the audience will find more difficult to accept.

Using Persuasive Strategies

Three basic strategies used in persuasion are appeal to reason, appeal to audience emotion, and appeal to audience needs. Speakers should remember their ethical responsibilities and not use dishonest or misleading persuasive appeals.

Listening Critically to Persuasive Speaking

The critical listener raises certain questions concerning the meaning of what is said and the intention of the speaker. The critical listener analyzes the persuasive speech, yet withholds judgement until there is enough data for drawing conclusions. Some questions the critical listener might ask include:

• What is this speaker's goal?
• Is the problem as important as this speaker says it is?
• Is there enough evidence presented to justify an acceptance of the speaker's claim?
• Are there pieces of evidence or arguments which have not been introduced?
• Has the speaker provided sources for the data which is presented?
• Does the speaker cover up the main issue through the use of less important examples or details?
• Is the speaker sincere?
• Are the speaker's arguments logical?
• Has the speaker tried to manipulate me by appealing to certain emotions or needs that I have?

Listeners will add questions or change them to suit their own purposes and needs, depending on the uniqueness of each persuasive talk.

Suggested Activities for Module 6

This section includes brief descriptions of activities that teachers can use for this module. The activities are suggestions only, and teachers should adapt and add other activities appropriate for their students and teaching styles. Sample assessment checklists for persuasive talks are provided at the end of this module.

Note: Teachers should take care to introduce all activities within the context of their applicability to effective communication in personal life, work, and lifelong learning. Activities and projects should be relevant to students' lives, and whenever possible students should create their own scenarios for communication projects. Mini-lessons related to module content and language processes should be taught to individual students, small groups, or the whole class as demanded by need.

Activity: Audience Analysis

As a class, discuss generally how speakers adapt their message for each audience by selecting different evidence in support of main points (or by selecting different main points). For example, if students were trying to gather support for a new public swimming pool in their community, how would they convince an audience of parents? Local business people? Teenagers? City/town council?

In small groups, ask students to select one of the topics below. Have students record changes they would make in their presentations for the four different audiences listed. This activity may be submitted as a written group assignment or as an oral group assignment, or may be used as a starting point for small group or whole class discussion.

Topics:

• Join our Aerobics Class
• Retirement Planning--Don't Wait
• You Need a Kitten
• Volunteer at Your Local Hospital or Nursing Home

Audiences:

• Vice presidents of major companies
• Retired people
• High school seniors
• Teachers

(Adapted from Brownell, 1996, p. 255)

Activity: Transitions

Have students find a transcription of a famous persuasive speech. Have them identify all the transitions used by the speaker to take the listener from one idea to the next.

Activity: Sales Talks

This activity may be done in groups or with the whole class. It also has possibilities for role playing buyers and sellers in action. The teacher and students may elaborate on or embellish sales conditions. Different students may prepare to take on a variety of roles, or one student may simply prepare a talk using one of the depicted scenarios.

Give students the following scenario: Today you have been asked to help with the summer clearance sale at Shelby's Sports Equipment. Most merchandise is on sale: all athletic equipment is 30% off, some athletic clothing and accessories are 50% off, and some athletic and aerobic shoes are 40% off. Now that you have been given the sales guidelines, you are ready to use your skills to persuade customers to buy Shelby's merchandise.

1. Your first customer is a professional marathon runner. She wants to replace her top-of-the-line running shoes and her lightweight running outfit. In addition, she wants several headbands and 100% cotton socks. You are pleased to note that you have all the items and all are on sale. You are even more pleased that you recognize the customer because she is a frequent store shopper and a local celebrity.

   First analyze your audience member (shopper); then draft a two- to three-minute sales pitch to the customer, identifying the persuasive strategies you will use. Finally, speak to your customer, persuading her to purchase the items.

2. Your second customer is a sports "buff." He collects all types of sports t-shirts, caps, and jackets, but is especially proud of his collection of these items displaying the local teams' names. In fact, he specifically came to Shelby's sale to purchase several local teams' clothing items. While you carry the items he wants, none of them is on sale; however, plain t-shirts, caps, and jackets are. You want to make the sale, but the customer is insisting on being given the sale price of 50% off. You have decided to try to sell him the plain versions of the items he wants because they are on sale.

   Analyze your audience (customer); then draft a two- to three-minute sales pitch to the customer, identifying the persuasive strategies you will use. Present this talk to your customer, persuading him to purchase the plain versions of the items that are on sale.

3. Your final customers are a group of amateur Olympians, with their trainers. They are pricing clothing, accessories, and shoes for their next competition and have visited several stores to compare prices. They want you to discuss the items they need and give them the best deal you can. A quick, private discussion with Mr. Shelby reveals that the group can have an additional ten percent off all sale items because of the large sale.

   Complete your audience analysis. Then, draft a two- to three-minute sales pitch to the customers, identifying the persuasive strategies you will use. Think of some visual aids you might use for these visitors, who may not be familiar with Shelby's sales policy. Then, speak to your customers, and use financial considerations to your best advantage. If they insist that the regular sales prices are not enough, remember that the store owner himself gave you additional guidelines. Use all these facts to your best advantage.

Students and teachers could create other scenarios for the above activity, related to the students' own community and interests.

(Adapted from Chapey, 1989, pp. 115-16)

Activity: Visual Aids to Accompany a Talk or Speech

Have students create an appropriate visual aid to accompany a persuasive oral presentation that they will be giving in this or any other class, or as part of an extra-curricular or volunteer activity.

Activity: Types of Persuasive Evidence (Group Activity)

Have students in small groups study each statement below and determine what it would take to convince them to accept that particular position. How much and what type of evidence would it take to persuade the students to agree with the statement?

Have students take turns within the group sharing their responses and discussing the differences among group members.

Statements:

1. It is best to have just two children.
2. University is a waste of time.
3. It is important to have a state-of-the-art computer.
4. Space aliens are living on earth.
5. Be an organ donor.
6. Listening is the most important communication skill.

Note: Instructors should shorten, lengthen, or adapt this list, as desired.

(Adapted from Brownell, 1996, p. 258)

Activity: Understanding Reasoning

In their notebooks, have students make a list of five statements they know to be true. Then have them determine what type of reasoning each of their conclusions is based on (inductive, causal, analogy, deduction). Discuss as a class.

Activity: Studying Persuasive Talks

Find examples of historical persuasive speeches by politicians, spiritual leaders, and activists. Study the speeches to determine the structure, the appeals, and the type of reasoning used by the speaker. Be sure to include speakers from various cultures, and both male and female speakers.

Activity: Guest Speaker

Invite someone to class who regularly makes persuasive speeches in his or her work or other activities. The guest might be a local business person, sales person, activist, union leader, politician, etc. Ask the guest to speak to students about what he or she considers when speaking persuasively. Have students prepare questions beforehand, related to persuasive speaking.

Activity: Planning and Presenting Persuasive Talks

Have each student plan and present a three- to five-minute persuasive speech on a topic of personal interest. They should consider the following:

• what goal they are trying to achieve
• what values, attitudes, and beliefs they might encounter in their audience
• what attitudes and beliefs they are trying to alter
• what action (e.g., read the newspaper every day) or non-action (do not smoke) they want their audience to take
• what type of reasoning they will use
• what other appeals they might use
• how they will convince the audience they know what they are talking about
• how they might begin and end their speech with strong arguments.

Note: Teachers should conclude each module with discussion or other reflective activity that encourages students to make and understand connections between the module and communication in people's personal lives, work experiences, and lifelong learning.

Sample Teacher Assessment Checklist for Persuasive Talk

Speaker's Name: ______________________ Date: ______________________

Topic: ___________________________________________________________

Circle the letter which best represents the student's ability:

V = Very Good
G = Good
A = Adequate
W = Weak

Comments:

Note: Some items listed above (e.g., eye contact) can vary across cultures and in accordance with the situation. Teachers should also be aware of second language and dialectical differences that can be present in students' speech, and adapt their assessment instruments accordingly.

Sample Peer or Teacher Assessment for Persuasive Talk

Student's Name:

Purpose:

Audience:

Context:

Date:

Rating Scale: 1 = Excellent 2 = Good 3 = Average 4 = Fair 5 = Weak

Comments: