2. Give students guidance and explicit instruction that develop reading skills and strategies. Balance direct instruction, guided reading, and independent reading.

Students need to experience a variety of activities including the following.

Think Alouds: Teachers and students verbalize (out loud) their thoughts while reading. This provides wonderful opportunities to model and monitor thinking, comprehension, and metacognitive strategies. Using passages from a range of texts, teachers can read the passage and think out loud as students follow along listening to the thinking, reading, or metacognitive strategy (e.g., visualizing, inferring, self-monitoring). After modeling a strategy and the process several times, teachers can have students practise think alouds with a partner or during reading conferences (Davey, 1983).

Language Experience Approach: The language experience approach uses stories that are composed orally by students and recorded by the teacher on chart paper (Ashton-Warner, 1965; Van Allen, 1976). This approach provides a forum for sharing experiences and a means of creating student-composed texts for reading and rereading. Teachers can use the experiences of students as the starting point. A topic is chosen and discussed, and a title is recorded by the teacher on the top of the chart. Alternatively, students may determine a title after the story has been dictated. As students continue to discuss the topic, the teacher records their comments and asks questions such as, "What else can you tell me?" As the students watch the teacher write their ideas on the chart, they read what is being written. The teacher reads the chart with the students, pointing to words, and has volunteers point to words while others read. The charts are displayed in the classroom and can be collated into a class book for further reading and rereading. Often rhyming words or words with similarities are identified.

Repeated Reading: The student reads the same text aloud or silently (depending on the grade level) a number of times to practise fluent reading, increase speed, and build confidence. Initially, the procedure should be modeled by the teacher. Students then can work by themselves or with partners, and reread a short passage until they are comfortable and fluent with the reading. The reading should be repeated at least three times. Repeated reading is particularly useful with second grade and up (May, 1994, p. 118).

Echo Reading: This is a useful strategy for beginning readers because it builds confidence and models fluent reading. The teacher reads aloud a sentence in a short text or passage as the students follow along. The teacher points to each word as it is read. Individuals, pairs, or small groups of students then "echo" read the material as they follow the teacher's pointing, or point to each word with their own fingers as it is read. Echo reading helps beginning readers see themselves as readers. It should be done, however, only in short sessions and not overused.

Shared Reading/Reading Along: The teacher models fluent reading and reading strategies by reading aloud while students follow along using individual copies of a book, a class chart, or a big book. Sample questions to ask when reading are shown below. (Make a set of cards that contain the questions for adult volunteers, parents, and older reading buddies to use when reading with students.)

Questions to Ask during Shared Reading

Before Reading
  1. What is this text (chart/book/label) about? Do you remember when we made it? Why we made it? (Establishing a context: Accessing semantic and pragmatic knowledge)
  2. Where should we start in reading this text (chart/book/label)? (Accessing concepts of print)
During Reading
  1. What might this word be? Let's read ahead and see if we can figure it out. Would _____ make sense here? (Accessing syntactic and semantic knowledge)
  2. What might this word be? Let's go back and read what came before and see if we can figure out what might work here. Does that sound right? (Accessing syntactic and semantic knowledge)
  3. Do we know any sounds in this word? What sound does it start with? End with? Yes, ___ (after child has volunteered a word) does begin with that letter. (Accessing graphophonic knowledge) Does ___ (teacher repeats the word) also make sense in the sentence? (Integrating cueing system knowledge)
  4. Do we know any other words that look like this? (Accessing graphophonic knowledge and structural clues)
Guided Reading

The teacher provides direction and scaffolding to guide students as they read and respond to a text. A guided reading typically involves (1) an introduction where the teacher discusses key concepts, unfamiliar vocabulary, and unusual text features, (2) the reading of the text, and (3) an opportunity to express personal responses, share ideas, and revisit a specific portion of text to model a particular reading strategy.

Guided Reading for Beginning Readers: Guided reading is an approach to early reading instruction in which teachers provide explicit instruction and support for beginning readers about how to read and become strategic independent readers. Using leveled sets of quality children's literature, teachers work with small groups of students who are able to read similar level texts with support. Guided reading enables beginning readers to practise their strategies while reading (McCreath, 1999, p. 3). A suggested procedure follows.
  1. Teachers group students who are similar in their reading development and are able to read approximately the same level of text.
  2. Before reading, teachers select an appropriate text that students can read, but also presents a few problems to solve. Teachers prepare an introduction to the text, keeping in mind the needs of the group. Students discuss the title and pictures, and predict what the text will be about. They raise questions, build expectations, and notice interesting illustrations.
  3. All students follow the first time through, as the teacher reads out loud. Students then read a meaningful segment or the entire text independently and request help as needed. During reading, teachers observe, make notes (a running record), and interact with students as they read independently. Teachers look for evidence of problem solving and use of strategies.
  4. Students then read a meaningful segment or the entire text independently, and request help as needed.
  5. Students talk about the text, check predictions, react personally, and return to the text to answer questions or problem solve.
  6. They reread the text with a partner or independently. Students may engage in post-reading activities of their own choosing or follow-up activities suggested by the teacher.
Guided Reading of Nonfiction in Grades 3 to 5: Guided reading may also be used with nonfiction. Students first read a selection silently and then, as a group or a class, they orally recall the information. The teacher guides the process by asking students questions to confirm, organize, and note any connections between the ideas. This process increases comprehension, accuracy, and ability. A suggested procedure follows.
  1. Prepare the students for a reading assignment by having them set a purpose for reading. Activate background knowledge by having students look at the title, pictures, heading, and other textual cues.
  2. Have students read the selection silently. After completion of the reading, ask the students to remember what they have read. Note the information on the board.
  3. Ask questions to help students organize the information into outline form. Lead the students through questioning to determine the main ideas and supporting details. Record the outline.
  4. Ask thought-provoking questions to help students make connections between what they knew previously and the new information.
  5. Assess the students orally on what they have learned about the topic (McCreath, 1999, p. 3).
Leveling Texts: In addition to having literary merit, books used for guided and independent reading should be suitable for the age, skill level, and social maturity of students. Teachers typically use the following criteria to level texts: Resources that are useful for the Emerging Phase include materials that contain a large font, one or two lines of print on a page, familiar content, a repeating pattern, and a high level of support for vocabulary changes (e.g., in the illustrations).

Resources that are useful for the Early Developing Phase include materials with a moderate-sized font, familiar content, some repeated phrases, a simple plot, several lines of print on the page, and moderate support for vocabulary.

Resources that are often used in the Developing Phase include materials with regular-sized font, longer and more complex sentence structures, more complex plots, less familiar content and vocabulary, and illustrations that elaborate on text rather than support it.

Readability formulas, cloze procedures, and readability checklists are also used to assess the difficulty or ease a text might provide for students.

Early readers like to read stories with familiar language that includes high-frequency sight words, easily decodable words, predictable story structures, or information that can be linked with experiences. They like illustrations that support and enhance the text and give direct clues to the content. As students become more confident, the content of texts can begin to draw on wider personal experience, and the vocabulary and sentences can become longer and more complex. There will also be a greater variety of genres, the use of more direct speech, and stories that reflect a longer time period.

Developing readers like to read about ideas and experiences that reflect wider personal, community, and cultural experiences, and take place in other places and times. The language structures are more complex, the text longer, and the range of genres greater. The print format and presentation will be more varied.

Appropriate texts for independent and instructional levels are usually determined using the following criteria.
96-100% word recognition Comprehensive understanding of text Independent reading level
90-95% word recognition General understanding of text Instructional level
Below 90% Poor understanding of text Frustrational level


Some experts suggest that 80% of students' reading should be at the independent level and 20% at the instructional level.

BDA (Before, During, and After): Before students begin reading, the teacher identifies three or four possible stopping points in a story and then prepares them for the reading by focusing their attention on the title, author, and illustrations and by activating prior knowledge. Students are given questions to develop predictions about the characters, setting, and plot: "What do you think a story with this title might be about? Who are the characters in this story? When do you think this story takes place? Where does it take place? What is the problem in the story? How do you think the problem might be solved?" Students are encouraged to discuss the predictions and to tell which predictions they agree with and why. The teacher can record their predictions on the chalkboard or on chart paper under the heading "Before".

Students can then be directed to read the first segment silently to check their predictions. When they have finished reading the first section, they close their books or turn them face down and discuss: "Were their predictions correct? What do they think now? What in the selection makes them say that? What do they think will happen now?" Again, these revised predictions are recorded (perhaps in another colour) under the heading of "During". Students continue the predicting-reading-proving cycle until the selection is completed.

After, students review the predictions that were made before the reading began by considering: "Were they confirmed, revised, or rejected? Why did some predictions change?" The teacher records responses under the heading "After". Students then discuss how the story was similar to other stories they have read and how it is similar or unlike other stories by the same author. Students also might consider their favourite parts and what they would have done differently/the same as the main character. Students can retell orally or in writing the story in their own words (Diagnostic Learning Centre, n.d.).

Directed Reading-Thinking Activity (DRTA): Another approach for guided reading is the DRTA (Stauffer, 1975). Its purpose is to build, via modeling and guidance from the teacher, strategies which the reader will ultimately use independently in a problem-solving manner. DRTA is an example of meaningful practice with teacher and readers working together. DRTA assists students in predicting outcomes and drawing conclusions. It involves predicting, reading, and confirming and proving.

Step 1: Predicting. Students are asked what they expect to find when they read. Each student should form a prediction and be able to support it. What might a story with this title be about? What do you think might happen? What do you think will happen next?

Step 2: Reading. Students read either orally or silently up to a specified point in the story and check their predictions.

Step 3: Proving. Students evaluate their predictions within the context of a discussion. "Was your prediction correct? Why or why not?" At the end of the discussion, students continue predicting what will take place in the next portion of the story. This, again, is followed by discussion.

Reading Workshops: Reading workshops provide a framework for students to share their reading responses and reading experiences. They also offer opportunities for reading strategy mini-lessons and for self-selected reading. A reading workshop usually begins with a short mini-lesson on a reading skill, strategy, or procedure (e.g., predicting and confirming) and a status check in which the teacher briefly determines what each student is planning to do (e.g., continue reading, start a new book, participate in a teacher conference, read with a buddy). The majority of the time (e.g., 45 minutes) is spent reading and doing reading-related activities (e.g., response journals, working on projects). The teacher uses this time to circulate and guide discussion or to conference with individual students. The last five to ten minutes of the workshop are used for sharing (e.g., writing, discussions, responses).

Mini-lessons: Teachers can use a variety of mini-lessons to teach a specific reading strategy that can be used before (e.g., making predictions or activating prior knowledge), during (e.g., forming a picture in the mind or raising questions such as what will happen next), or after (e.g., rereading parts or giving a response supported by evidence) reading a particular print text.

Concept Webs: Concept webbing can be used by students and teachers to see the relationships between new information and the students' prior knowledge. Information can be organized in webs or mind maps.

Questioning

The questions that students and teachers ask before, during, and after reading are important in helping students think about and share the meanings they make as they read a text. Teachers should avoid only asking questions that simply elicit the meaning they believe is in the text, or questions that have only one answer. Instead, teachers should use questions as a means to discuss texts and to help students build and share meanings. Teachers should encourage students to ask questions of themselves, the text, and other readers. To avoid simple recall of literal information or a string of closed questions that have only one answer, teachers might consider using the taxonomy developed by Nila Banton Smith (1969): Teachers also need to be aware that students can assume different stances or focuses when they read. Rosenblatt (1994) talks about two contrasting focuses on a continuum - the efferent and the aesthetic. During an efferent reading, the focus is on the information to be taken way. During an aesthetic reading, the focus is on what the text arouses in the reader.

In order to support students' responses to print texts, teachers must reflect upon students' initial responses as a basis for asking questions, giving prompts, and planning reading lessons. Cox (1999, p. 228) found that when students are not prompted to respond one way or another, they take a predominantly aesthetic stance. It is important to have students ask questions, focus on favourite parts, make associations, hypothesize, and create representations (dramatizing, role playing, pantomiming, creating sound pieces). A frequent pattern of response by students is to challenge or question the text, hypothesize a possible explanation, and draw on personal experience to prove or disprove it. Rosenblatt (1994) suggests that, in the case of most poetic, narrative, and dramatic texts, the teacher's primary responsibility should be to encourage students to take an aesthetic stance.

On the other end of the continuum is the efferent stance of explaining, focusing on print (letters, words, rhymes), focusing on content (retelling, listing, sequencing, summarizing, relating cause and effect, generalizing), and analyzing texts. The efferent stance is useful when students read, hear, and view nonfiction texts.

Zarrillo and Cox (1992) found that the types of questions and prompts teachers use can affect students' responses to literary texts. Using Rosenblatt's (1978) aesthetic versus efferent focus, they concluded that teachers still direct students to take efferent responses over aesthetic. Cox (1999) suggests teachers should help students take an aesthetic stance during experiences with literary texts. Examples of questions that prompt each stance follow.

Aesthetic Stance: Efferent Stance: Other useful strategies for developing questioning techniques and comprehension follow.

ReQuest: Although it was devised for one-on-one instruction, ReQuest can be adapted for group work. Asking and modeling good questions helps students pose their own questions during reading. Students and the teacher silently read the same segment of text (e.g., a paragraph). The teacher closes the book and is questioned about the passage by students. The teacher then exchanges roles with the students and queries them about the material. Upon completion of this exchange, the class and the teacher read several additional segments of the text until the students have processed enough information to make predictions about what they think they will learn in the rest of the selection. The students can then read the remaining portion silently or work with a partner to continue the questioning. The teacher might want to facilitate a follow-up discussion of the text (Manzo, 1969; Vacca & Vacca, 1999).

QARs (Question/Answer/Relationships): This activity teaches students strategies for answering questions. Students learn the following four strategies and how to tell the differences between them (Raphael, 1984).

Strategy One: Right There Strategy Two: Think and Search Strategy Three: On My Own Strategy Four: Writer and Me 5Ws and H Questions: Students can also benefit from learning how to ask and respond to 5Ws and H questions (Who, What, When, Why, Where, How).

Making Inferences: Teachers should ask students to make and identify inferences in daily reading activities. Johnson and Johnson (1986) recommend that the teacher describe and explain the information from the text and from prior knowledge that can be used to reach conclusions or make inferences. Using relevant word clues, inferences can be made about: Students can also work in pairs and create their own examples, or find examples in their own personal writing or in stories or novels. They can present their findings to their peers.

Making inferences is often easy and obvious. Sometimes we make inferences which seem to be correct but later prove to be incorrect. Students can create such examples by putting "twists" on particular contexts and fooling their peers into making an incorrect inference.

KWL (Know, Want to Know, Learn): KWL helps students take an active role before, during, and after reading nonfiction (Ogle, 1986, 1989). The teacher introduces the KWL strategy in conjunction with a new topic or text selection by explaining to students why it is important to "first find out what we think we know about this topic" and to "anticipate how an author is likely to present and organize the information" (Ogle, 1989). Students brainstorm what they know and categorize the information. They predict how the information may be presented and list questions they want answered. During and after reading, students record what they are learning and what else they want to know. A variation of KWL is: What I think I Know, What I Want to Know, How I will Find Out, What I Have Learned (Palinscar & Brown, 1985).

SQ3R: SQ3R helps students read and understand information texts (Robinson, 1961; Vacca & Vacca, 1999). Students need to understand their purpose for reading (e.g., What do I want to know and remember from this text?). They also need to be able to adjust the strategy with different texts. The steps are: Responding to Reading

Cox (1999) recommends that teachers provide students with many options for responding to what they are reading. Students should not always have to write or do a project about their reading. Some texts require guided reflection while others lend themselves to post-reading activities such as the following.

Justifying My Opinions: Students choose a focus (e.g., the story or book as a whole, a character, the action, the author's or illustrator's style) and three "describing words" that reflect their opinion. They then justify their opinions with specific examples and/or page numbers from the story or book (Hoyt, 2000, p. 141).

Additional Oral Responses: Teachers can develop students' sense of story and ability to tell stories by modeling the process of retelling using a noticeable beginning, middle, and ending to a story (e.g., "Once when I was little, I got lost in my own neighborhood. I really wanted to go to the store all by myself so I …. The next thing I did was …. Finally, I recognized my own street. I was so happy to get home and I did not try to do that again for a long, long time!"). The more opportunities students have to tell a true story of a problem they had and how they solved it, the easier it is for them to relate to the problems and elements in books. Teachers can write "characters, beginning, middle, ending" on the board or a chart, and fill these categories in as students tell their stories or use story maps to model effective retellings.

Teachers can lead discussions and ask questions that focus on personal response (e.g., students' opinions of the text read, feelings about characters or incidents, feelings if they were in that situation) and critical response (e.g., looking for more detail or in more depth for the author's purpose, intended audience, style, vocabulary, structure, techniques). In group and partner discussions, students develop their response to their reading by forming small groups or pairs, reading a single work of literature on their own, coming together and having a discussion, and completing a group project.

Discussion Webs: Students are given a graphic web with a question that is central to the reading they are doing. They use the right and left hand side of the web to note the pros and cons of the issue posed in the centre. Students then meet in groups to draw a conclusion based on the evidence gathered. The discussion can be followed up by individual written responses (Hoyt, 2000).

Additional Written Responses: Some examples of written responses are listed below. Visual Responses: Some ideas for visual responses include:
Note: The best follow-up activity is often more reading, including rereading the same text.