Viewing

Viewing is an important part of literacy. In today's world, students need to comprehend and integrate visual knowledge with their other literacy knowledge (Tompkins, Bright, Pillard, & Winso, 1999). They need to construct meaning from oral, print, and other media messages. As students view visual messages, they need to use a range of viewing skills and strategies to make sense of the visual images, and accompanying oral and print language. Students need to connect meanings in the messages to their prior knowledge and experiences, and consider the pragmatic issues associated with the images including:

What is the message?
Who is the message for?
What is the purpose of the message?
What have I learned about the topic, about myself, and about others?
Whose point of view is presented? (Brunner & Tally, 1999).

Whether students are viewing a picture, an illustration, a sign, a magazine, a television cartoon, an advertisement, a commercial, a video, the Internet, or any other visual text, they need to make sense of it and respond personally, critically, and creatively.

"Being literate in contemporary society means being active, critical, and creative users not only of print and spoken language but also of the visual language of film and television, commercial and political advertising, photography, and more" (International Reading Association/National Council of Teachers of English, 1996, p. 5).

When developing students' viewing skills and strategies, consider the following guidelines.

1. Provide many opportunities for students to view daily.

Teachers can help students recognize the different forms visual texts can take including:

Visual	Audiovisual/Multimedia
advertisements (print) book covers bulletin boards brochures cartoons (print) computer graphics diagrams dioramas drawings illustrations maps mime presentations models paintings photographs post cards and posters tableaux	animation CD-ROMs dance creations dramas films Internet sites multimedia presentations newscasts on-line magazines oral reports puppet plays reader's theatres skits sound pieces television videos

Picture Book Studies: Select various picture books or illustrations for viewing. Through guided discussion, talk about the author or illustrator's style, art work, and other interesting details. Students can learn to enjoy and appreciate well-crafted visual text and the language that accompanies it. Have students read and view other books written or illustrated by the same authors and illustrators.

Gallery Walks: Gallery walks (Brownlie & Close, 1992) allow students to view others' work, particularly displays, illustrations, photos, or multimedia representations, and to process the content in preparation for discussion and reflection. The teacher or students construct displays or representations about various aspects of a topic. Usually a student acts as the curator at each display site and responds to any questions about the display. Students are paired and directed to visit the displays, to observe each carefully, to discuss each with a partner, and to record the important points of their observations and discussion. The pairs then review their notes and determine what they think are the most important observations. Each student shares his or her individual list with someone other than the original partner and negotiates with a new partner to create a common list. This, in turn, can be followed by another pairing and negotiation. The teacher can ask for written summaries, whole class consensus, or class discussion as a follow-up to the gallery walk activity.

Drama and Puppet Plays: Whether formally structured and presented by a professional troupe or informally staged by peers, drama and puppetry are powerful vehicles for developing students' critical viewing skills. Students can learn to analyze and appreciate the situations and plots, the dialogue and characters, and the elements that go into a performing art. Viewing live theatre and puppetry can be a wonderful means of encouraging oral communication, writing, and critical listening and viewing.

Videos, Films, Television, CD-ROMs, and the Internet: Using the contemporary media that reflect a wide variety of cultures and experiences offers teachers a chance to help students analyze the visual texts that students experience outside the classroom. These media can be used to extend students' vocabulary and experiences and to help students develop lifelong critical thinking and viewing skills.

Viewing Centre: Provide a variety of forms and genres (including magazines, CD-ROMs, videotapes) in a viewing centre. Texts that are appropriate for display in viewing centres or for use in classroom viewing activities are listed below.

Selected Texts for Viewing

Teachers may find the following titles in their school library collection.

Grade 1
Bourgeois, P. Franklin books (video)
Bourgeois, P. Big Sarah's Little Boots
Brown, M. Goodnight Moon
Brown, M. Stone Soup
Gag, W. Millions of Cats
Jay, A. Picture This
Jocelyn, M. Hannah's Collection
Keats, E. The Snowy Day
Kellogg, S. Chicken Little (video)
McCloskey, R. Make Way for Ducklings
Martin, B. et al. Chicka Chicka Boom Boom
Martin, B. Chicka Chicka Boom Boom (video)
Shannon, M. No David!

Grade 2
Anderson, H. The Ugly Duckling
Condon, P. Changes
DeBrunhoff, J. The Story of Babar
Ferguson, M. Has Anybody Seen My Umbrella (CD-ROM)
Gay, M. On My Island
Gold, B. My Four Lions
Rey, M. Curious George
Sendak, M. Where the Wild Things Are
Yolen, J. How Do Dinosaurs Say Goodnight?
Yolen, J. Owl Moon

Grade 3
Allard, H. Miss Nelson Is Missing
Burton, V. The Little House
Duvoisin, R. Petunia
Leaf, M. The Story of Ferdinand
Lester, M. A Is For Salad
Mayer, M. A Boy, A Dog, and A Frog
Paola, T. The Clown of God (video)
Parish, P. Amelia Bedelia
Taback, S. Joseph Had a Little Overcoat
Thompson, R. The Follower
Trottier, M. Dreamstones
Ward, H. Hare and Tortoise
Wood, A. Napping House

Grade 4
Mahy, M. The Five Sisters
Myers, C. Black Cat (print and video)
Myers, C. Wings
Trottier, M. Flags

Grade 5
Martin, J. Snowflake Bentley
Tibo, G. The Cowboy Kid
Van Allsburg. Books and videos
Wiesner, D. Sector 7

Note: This listing of titles is intended to act as a starting point. Teachers should consult the bibliography and subsequent English language arts learning resource materials updates for other titles.

2. Give students guidance and explicit instruction to develop active and critical viewing skills and strategies.

Teachers should discuss and model viewing strategies. Many opportunities for teaching and scaffolding viewing skills and strategies can be incorporated into daily classroom language experiences. Critical viewing begins in the classroom when children look at a picture, illustration, poster, or advertisement or view a video or television program that causes them to consider some new information or to respond on a personal level. It is important to help students consider the visual messages and think critically about the messages being conveyed. Students also need support in recognizing the elements, techniques, and conventions of visual texts, including the following:

Visual	Audio	Technical
Arrangement Colour Facial expression Gestures Line Point of view Size Shape	Dialogue High vs low Loud vs soft Music Silence Single vs multiple sounds Sound effects Voice overs	Angle of shots Camera work Editing Lighting Motion Props Special effects Titling Types of shots

View, Pause, Predict, and Think Aloud: Teachers use the pause function in a video, for example, in order to model making predictions and reflecting upon, talking about, comparing, and critically evaluating key points in the visual texts. In an informational video, it is helpful to stop periodically for students to make notes and consider the visual information presented.

Viewing Guides: Prepare a viewing guide for students to use as they view a film, video, or multimedia presentation. Discuss the important before, during, and after viewing behaviours.

Sample Viewer's Guide for Informational Films, Videos, Presentations, and Other Visual Works

Before Viewing:

What do you already know about the topic?
What do you want to learn from viewing this work/presentation?

During Viewing:

As you view this work/presentation, write below three interesting and new ideas or visual elements that you observe.

After Viewing:

What was the most interesting idea or visual element? Why?
What made the visual work/presentation effective?

Sample Viewer's Guide for Narrative Films, Videos, Presentations, and Other Visual Works

Before Viewing

What do you think this work/presentation is about?
As you view the work/presentation, consider…

During Viewing

As you view this work/presentation, write below the visual elements that you notice that help you answer the following questions.

(1) When did the story happen? Or, when was the work created?
(2) Where did it take place? Or, where was it made?
(3) Who was the main character(s)? Or, what individuals are involved and how?
(4) What was the problem or goal? Or, what do you think inspired this work?
(5) How was the problem solved or the goal reached? Or, what problems did the creator overcome and how?

After Viewing

What was your favourite visual? Why?
What did you like about this work/ presentation? What did you learn?
Would you recommend this work/presentation to others? Why?
How would you rate this work/presentation? (Describe your criteria/reasons.)

As students become more comfortable reflecting upon and evaluating their viewing experiences, teachers might include questions related to:

the storyline. (E.g., Was the storyline interesting? Convincing?)
the acting. (E.g., Was the acting natural? Convincing?)
the message. (E.g., What was the message? Who was it for? Whose point of view is presented? Whose is not?)
the effects. (E.g., What techniques did the artist use to achieve the desired effect?)

Directed Viewing-Thinking Activity: In a directed viewing-thinking activity, the teacher guides students through a visual work or presentation. The focus is on making observations and predictions, formulating questions, and confirming or rejecting them before during, and after viewing. A teacher might use the following steps:

Step 1: Activate the background knowledge by looking at the title and any visual cues available in a survey of the work.

Step 2: Make predictions about the content of the work and support predictions with reasons. Set a purpose for viewing.

Step 3: Have students view the work, keeping their predictions and purpose in mind.

Step 4: Have students confirm or reject predictions by finding proof or supporting information in the work.

Step 5: Have students continue to view the work with different purposes or foci for viewing, and finding evidence in the visual text for their ideas and conclusions.

Teaching critical viewing skills and strategies helps students learn to "deconstruct" visual texts such as television programs, video games, advertising, CD-ROMs, and other elements of popular culture. They also learn how to create their own messages in a variety of media. Students can be encouraged to ask important questions including:

What individuals are most often represented in the media and what individuals (e.g., gender, culture, age) are absent?
From whose perspective is the story or image shown?
Who owns or supports this medium (e.g., television, newspaper, Internet) and what impact does such ownership have on visual content?
For whom is this message intended? Who wants to reach this audience and why?
What visual elements are used to get my attention?
How do my values and life experiences coincide with the visual messages to produce meaning for me?

(EduAction: A Canadian Studies Resource Guide, 2000, p. 2)

Note: The Internet is a valuable medium for communication. However, using it wisely and safely requires critical thinking skills. Teachers will find a number of resources listed in the bibliography that accompanies this guide as well as on the Media Awareness Network site (www.media-awareness.ca) useful for developing students' critical thinking and viewing abilities.