Oral Language Development

Oral language is a powerful tool for communicating, thinking, and learning. It shapes, modifies, extends, and organizes thought. Oral language is a foundation of all language development and, therefore, the foundation of all learning. It is the base for the other language strands. Through speaking and listening, students connect with others, learn concepts, develop vocabulary, and perceive the structure of the English language--essential components of learning. Students who have a strong oral language base have an academic advantage. School achievement depends on students’ ability to display knowledge in a clear and acceptable form in speaking as well as writing.

Speech is a vehicle to link individuals to society. Exchanges students have with their peers, teachers, and significant others can help them come to know the world in more personal and socially responsible ways. When students talk about their ideas and listen to the ideas of others, they clarify their thinking. They can figure out what they believe and where they stand on issues.

The written word has taken on an authority in our society, sometimes at the expense of the oral. Yet, in reality, the spoken word will dominate the lives of most students. It is a constant, regardless of what they do in their lives. Facility with language is an asset in daily activities and in the world of work. The competent use of oral language is a natural aspect of lifelong learning skills developed in schools.

To ensure that oral language occupies a central position in the classroom, it must be planned for and directed. When given status, support, and value, it can turn a classroom into a vibrant, interactive environment for learners.

Oral communication is the verbal and nonverbal interaction with an audience to communicate thoughts, information, and feelings. Speech is one way human beings make connections with each other. To speak fluently and confidently in a variety of situations is a central human need and an important goal of education.

Oral language should be integral to learning, rather than a discrete subject area or a separate lesson in an English language arts program. Oral language can grow naturally out of other activities. Oral language is best developed through meaningful use in a trusting environment where students’ cultural backgrounds and communication styles are taken into account.

Teachers play an important role in structuring the type of environment that will promote effective oral language development. They can establish a classroom tone which promotes openness, respect, and trust. Students should feel some ownership in the classroom voice. Language use is a natural part of this learning environment where purposeful talk is seen as an important means to language learning.

Teachers act as role models for language use. However, at the same time, they should recognize that students bring different dialects and ways of communicating into the classroom. It is important to accept students’ language and to extend that language so that students develop flexibility and competence.

Teachers are language diagnosticians. By listening to their students talk, teachers can come to know the students, their interests, and their language needs. They learn what students know, how they learn, and the language and experiences they bring to the classroom. Based on this information, teachers can provide for more stimulating and meaningful language activities.

Speaking Activities

An important goal in a language arts program is to create purposeful and varied activities that will develop individuals who can comfortably and competently participate in a range of situations requiring speech. Hook and Evans (1982) identified four overall kinds of speaking situations that students should encounter, not only in the classroom but in their adult lives. The types of speech range from personal, exploratory speech to more formal, ceremonial speech. Students need to develop fluency and confidence in their oral language through experiences in many types of speech situations.

Because the experiences in Groups I and II are the basis for more formal speech activities, students should have many experiences with these before experiencing those listed in Groups III and IV.

Group I -- Activities for often-used types of speech: inner speech, conversation, talking circles, question and answer, discussion (both small group and whole class), storytelling, oral interpretation.

Group II -- Activities for less-used types of speech: introduction, interview, panel discussion, seminar, business meeting, formal speech, illustrated talk, announcement.

Group III -- Activities for more limited types of speech: debating and dramatization (role playing, improvisation, choral reading/speaking, readers theatre, play reading).

Group IV -- Activities for primarily professional types of speech: special and vocational speeches (e.g., toasts, election speeches, valedictorian speeches, introductory speeches, acceptance speeches).

All speech activities are best incorporated into classroom lessons so that they are integrated and not perceived as separate units.

Group I: Activities for Often-used Types of Speech

Students use informal talk to make their thinking explicit to themselves as well as to others. They also use it to assimilate new concepts and knowledge before attempting more technical and formal language use. Teachers also promote talk to build classroom relationships. By talking in pairs, in small groups, and in whole class discussion, students learn to co-operate and collaborate.

Inner speech underlies all other speech activities. It is important for learning because it serves as a mediator between thought and external speech. Walter (1989) suggests that one way teachers can assist learning is by encouraging the "quality and quantity of interior dialogue--the private talking with oneself that clarifies thought and allows rational discourse with others" (p. 33). When students are aware of their speech processes, they are able consciously to clarify and extend their learning. Whatever the language activity, teachers need to encourage students to be aware of the potential of inner speech in their learning. Simple statements, such as, "Put it in your own words", "Talk it out", "Tell me what you are thinking", encourage the development of inner speech and form the base for other speech activities.

Conversation

Conversation (dialogue) is the social interchange of thoughts, information, or feelings between people. In life and in the classroom, conversation is used to establish self-esteem, build relationships, assess feelings, and seek information. While conversation can be difficult to structure, there are times that focused conversation should be encouraged in the classroom. Students can productively converse about such topics as assignments, literature, film and television, and current issues. Good conversation sets the tone for more structured discussion.

Tchudi and Mitchell (1989) give the following suggestions for using partnerships and dialogues:

Collaborative writing: Students work together as co-authors on a piece of writing. They share ideas, coach each other, and serve as peer editors and proofreaders, producing a stronger piece of writing than either student might produce alone.

Mini-debates: Students take opposite sides of an issue and discuss it, either for themselves or for an audience.

Interviews: Students can interview each other about an area of expertise or, as a team, interview an outside expert. Students should realize that interviews simply are structured conversations.

Response to literature: Students read and work out their interpretation of a literary selection.

Think-Pair-Share: This is a useful method for getting full participation from a class without putting any individual on the spot. This strategy allows for individual reflection prior to responding.

• Teachers pose a question requiring abstract thought (e.g., What are the implications of raising the driving age to twenty-one?).
• Students think and jot down a response.
• Pairs are formed and they talk about their responses with a partner.
• As a class, they then share responses.

Talking Circles

Talking circles are useful when students need to share feelings or when the topic under consideration has no right or wrong answer. Students are seated in a circle. One student holds an item such as a small stone while speaking. Only the student holding the object is allowed to speak. When finished, the student passes the item clockwise to the next person. This procedure is followed until all participants have had an opportunity to speak. Any participant who does not wish to speak may pass and silence is an acceptable response. Comments that put down others or oneself should be discouraged (e.g., "I don’t think anyone will agree with me, but ..." or "I’m not very good at ...").

Moral or ethical issues can often be dealt with in a talking circle without offending anyone. The purpose of talking circles is not always to reach a decision or consensus. More importantly, the purpose is to create a safe environment for students to share their feelings and points of view. They come to believe what they say will be listened to and accepted without criticism. They gain an empathetic appreciation for points of view other than their own. Students also develop an appreciation for a traditional communication and decision-making style of some Indian and Métis peoples.

Discussions

Discussions consist of a group of students exchanging information, opinions, or experiences and working toward a common goal or adding to common knowledge. Discussions are an effective means of helping students learn to express themselves in small groups or whole class settings. They are usually more structured than conversations.

Whole class discussion: The key to teacher-led discussion is the quality and kind of questions asked. In addition, teachers must listen carefully to students' responses. To ensure that whole-class discussions do not become teacher monologues punctuated by teacher questions, consider the following:

• Questions should reflect all levels of thinking.

• Questions should be well thought-out and engaging.

• Questions should allow for expansion and elaboration.

• Questions should be directed so all students can participate.

• Questions and subsequent responses should be followed by appropriate wait time.

• Questions should cause students to draw upon previous knowledge.

• Questions should cause students to give reasons or provide evidence.

• Questions should provoke deeper thinking.

• Questions should also come from students, and students should be encouraged to speak to each other as well as the teacher.

Small group discussion: In small groups, each student has many more opportunities to talk and be listened to than in whole class discussions. Because students must take responsibility for their group's learning, group work develops independence. It fosters and enhances skills in collaboration and allows a teacher to interact more closely and more frequently with individual students. Co-operating effectively in small groups is a life skill.

To ensure that group discussions are as effective as possible, teachers should consider the following:

• Students should have a clear reason for small group discussions. If the group is to discuss a subject, that subject should be clear. Discussion guides can provide additional guidance.

• The group should be of a manageable size. Usually a group of five is large enough for good interaction and small enough for efficient management.

• If the group is to be organized with definite roles and responsibilities, these roles should be clear to all members, whether it is the teacher or the students who make the assignments. Over the course of a semester or year, students should have the opportunity to experience a variety of group roles.

• The group should establish a sense of how to conduct its business most efficiently. It should establish both procedure and degree of formality.

• All members should work for the good of the group in the interest of accomplishing the task.

• The group should have some sense of how long it will hold its discussion and what it will do with its accomplishments (Hook & Evans, 1982, p. 426).

Some guidelines for students working in groups are listed below.

Working in Groups Effective group participants exhibit certain traits: They listen politely to the viewpoints of others. They concentrate on the task at hand without digressing or interrupting other groups or the teachers. They discuss issues rather than attacking individuals who raise the issues. They share materials with others in the group. They accept their roles--chairperson, recorder, monitor, and reporter. They are active and positive contributors to the discussion. They are active listeners.

Numerous methods are available to encourage effective small group discussions. Among them are the following:

Grouptalk helps students discuss a given question. Whipple (1975) suggests the following guidelines be given to the students before they begin their discussions. A tape recorder can be used to monitor the discussions.

Starting Rules:

1. Read today’s question and tell yourself what it means.

2. Discuss its meaning; tell others what you think the question means.

3. Decide on one meaning; agree on the meaning before you start answering the question.

Discussion Rules:

1. Contribute; give your thoughts on the question.

2. Be relevant; stick to the subject.

3. Listen; try to understand what someone else is saying.

4. Respond; comment on what others have said.

Ending Rules:

1. Sum up; help in the summary by trying to remember the main ideas discussed.

2. Evaluate; listen to the playback and comment on how well the Grouptalk rules were followed (Moffett and Wagner, 1983, pp. 87-88).

Guided discussion sheets can be prepared to guide a group. For example, a literature-based guide such as the following could be used:

Thirty Below
Elizabeth Brewster

The prairie wind sounds colder
than any wind I have ever heard.
Looking through frosted windows
I see snow whirl in the street
and think how deep
all over the country now
snow drifts
and cars are stuck
on icy roads.
A solitary man walking
wraps his face in a woollen mask,
turns his back sometimes
so as not to front
this biting, eye-smarting wind.
Suddenly I see my dead father
in an old coat too thin for him
the tabs of his cap pulled over his ears,
on a drifted road in New Brunswick
walking with bowed head
towards home.

(Brewster, 1972. Used by permission of Oberon Press.)

Task:

1. Have one member of the group reread the poem aloud.

2. In the assigned groups, discuss responses to the following questions.

3. Reach group consensus on each response.

4. Record the responses and be prepared to have one group member report them.

Questions:

1. What images came to mind as you read/heard the poem?

2. Trace the poet’s thoughts.

3. What is the theme of the poem?

4. What common human feelings are explored in the poem?

5. Is this an effective poem? Why or why not?

Each group member can initial the group’s response sheet and share it with the teacher.

An issue-based discussion guide such as the following could also be used in conjunction with a theme or as an introduction to a novel such as Robb White’s Deathwatch.

You are stranded in the desert dressed in summer clothing. In your desperation you have driven fifty miles off the road, and now your car is out of gas. There is nothing around you but cactus and sand, and it is 40 degrees in the shade. You must try to reach the highway. You can carry only a limited number of things with you.

Look at the list below. Your task is to rank the fifteen items in order of their importance and utility in ensuring your survival. Place 1 by the most important item, 2 by the second most important, and so on through 15, the least important survival item. Consider what you know about the desert in making your decisions. Work individually; then as a group.

__any part of the car __sunglasses __jar of Tang __four chocolate bars __map of the area __box of matches __silk scarf __ten metres of nylon rope

__first-aid kit __AM-FM radio __lipstick __blanket __slingshot __pair of boots __Coleman lantern

(Belgard, 1984, p. 55. Used with permission of the National Council of Teachers of English.)

Jigsaw activities help students accept responsibility for their learning. Students are divided into groups of no more than five ("home" groups). They research and become experts on a particular piece of the topic, theme, or issue. They then form new "expert" groups. (Each expert group includes one student from each home group.) Expert groups discuss their particular section or assignment to develop a shared understanding. Expert members return to home groups to share their expertise. For example, students could use a jigsaw format to investigate contemporary poetry.

1. Four poets are chosen to be investigated by the class.

2. Students form groups of four. This is the home group.

3. As a group, the students decide which poet each group member will investigate.

4. Students form expert groups where each of the members is investigating the same poet.

5. Using the anthologies found in the resource centre, students collectively decide on four to eight representative poems by their poet.

6. Students in each group prepare some background notes on the poet’s life, the poet’s style, and the poems they have chosen. They decide the best order of presentation of the poems and background information.

7. Students return to their home group and present a mini-seminar sharing their expertise.

Brainstorming involves groups of students in solving a problem or generating ideas. The following format can be used:

• a topic is given
• a group is formed
• each member presents as many ideas as possible
• each member builds on another member’s ideas
• after a set time, brainstormed ideas are categorized and organized
• results are shared with the whole class.

Brainstorming can be used in numerous situations, including to preview a theme (e.g., courage) or to review a theme or group of literary selections (e.g., choosing ten key selections for a class anthology).

Storytelling

Storytelling is an act of sharing, often as important to the storyteller as to the listener. When people tell someone a good story, they release their real language power. Storytelling can come from personal experience, from one's imagination, or from stories heard or read. It involves students by creating a link with peers, with the oral tradition, and with literature. It attunes students to their audience, to the power of language, and to narrative structure. Tanner (1991) provides guidelines for effective storytelling:

• Students should select a story or story segment that lends itself to retelling. Their best choice is a story that has a tightly constructed plot with an interesting beginning, a logical development of episodes, spirited conflict, and a definite climax that brings out a brief, satisfying conclusion.

• They should visualize every scene and character. In their minds they should really "see" what is occurring until they feel they have actually lived that experience.

• Storytellers use simple, powerful language consistent with the story’s style. Students should not try to memorize the author’s words. They should use their own words, except for a few phrases that they may need to retain to help the "flavour" of the tale. Because words are their only tools for building the story, they should use a rich vocabulary that arouses the imagination.

• Students should strive to breathe life into the tale. They should show enthusiasm and spontaneity in their voices, in their bodies, and in their eyes.

• They should try to create suspense through a varied tone and rate. They should be shown that it is boring to hear everything delivered in the same tone and at the same pace. Variety is necessary to communicate thought and feeling, and to build toward an exciting climax.

• Students should vocally distinguish between the various people, giants, animals, and monsters that appear frequently in stories. They should use a wide range of pitch, quality, and force. When they turn from character to narrator, they should keep their voices pleasant and pitched for easy listening. They should always articulate clearly so the audience will catch every word (p. 352).

• They should respect the background traditions of the story. Many Indigenous stories, for example, are living and sacred parts of a culture and not intended for public sharing. Only recently have some stories been shared with those outside that specific culture. Before telling such a tale, storytellers should learn something of the story’s importance and background as well as the associated protocol. For example, there are some stories that are to be told only during the winter months.

Some teaching suggestions for storytelling are:

• Students can read and then retell in their own words a story, legend, folktale, or narrative poem using the appropriate tone and some of the dialogue from the selection. Students can tape record their version of the story and share it with younger students.

• Students can read and then retell in their own words a story from a character’s point of view who is not the main character in the story.

• Students can review a selection’s story line using the "round-robin" technique. One student begins to retell the story until the teacher (or designated student) indicates another student will take over the recitation.

• Students can "sell" a novel to their peers by retelling a chapter or an exciting incident.

Reading Aloud/Oral Interpretation

This refers to reading a work of literature in a way that expresses understanding of the piece. It is reading to express meaning and not simply reading words. Oral interpretation should be a frequent part of the language arts program. It provides a great source of pleasure for the reader and listener alike and can dramatically influence students’ attitudes about the value of reading literature. In addition, reading aloud encourages effective listening skills. By reading aloud, teachers can mo del effective interpretation; however, students should also be given opportunities to read. The following ideas can guide the reading. Students can:

• review the material silently before oral reading, thinking about how they will express the intended meaning through their voice

• express the intent using voice, tone, and rate

• project, ensuring they can be heard by everyone

• use good posture and appropriate gestures to give emphasis to their reading

• remember that their purpose is to keep their audience interested and entertained.

Some teaching suggestions include the following:

• Students can turn a selection into an oral reading script by using symbols to indicate how a passage should be read:

  / = pause // = stop > = softer

  < = louder __ = stress

• Students can read aloud from any number of sources or genres--prose, poetry, or plays.

• Students can experiment with dialects by reading plays, poems, or stories written in dialect. Care should be taken to ensure students understand the context of the selection and respect the poetic nature of dialects.

• Students can tape record stories, poems, or plays to be given to elementary schools, hospitals, or libraries. (If the material selected is copyrighted, they must write to the copyright holder for permission.)

• Students can select appropriate music and sound effects for a dramatic reading of a selection.

• Students can use readers theatre as a group strategy for reading aloud.

Assessment of Group I Speaking Activities

Speech is fundamental to a person’s individual and cultural identity. It is the most personal of the language strands and, consequently, the one about which teachers need to be particularly sensitive, especially as far as feedback and assessment are concerned. When giving feedback on students’ speaking abilities, students and teachers should remember four guiding principles:

• Begin with a compliment.
• Offer a recommendation for improvement.
• Conclude with a positive comment.
• Accommodate diverse linguistic backgrounds.

Assessment refers to collecting information on student progress and learning. Most assessment of Group I speaking activities will be anecdotal in nature. Both oral and written critiques are of value. Oral critiques have a particular value because th e entire class can benefit when standards are shared. Written critiques provide a permanent record of reactions and recommendations. The assessment forms on the following pages may be used in a variety of ways and adapted to individual purposes:

• Sample Conversation Checklist
• Sample Peer Assessment for Discussion Activities
• Sample Self-assessment for Discussion Activities
• Sample Assessment for Discussion Activities
• Sample Assessment for Discussion Activities
• Sample Storytelling Checklist
• Sample Assessment for Oral Interpretation.

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Sample Conversation Checklist

Student's Name: _____________________________________________

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Sample Peer Assessment for Discussion Activities

After your group has met, use the following checklist to determine how well the group is working and what could be done to make it work better. If you can think of additional points, please add them.

Names: ___________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
Date: ________________________________ Class: _______________________________

As a group, we worked well by:

One aspect we can improve is to:

(Graham & George, 1992, p. 59. Used by permission of Pembroke Publishers Ltd.)

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Sample Self-assessment for Discussion Activities

Group Name: ___________________________ Subject: _______________________________________

Date: __________________________________

Rate yourself on each category using the rating scale below. Each member of your group should do the same.

Names of participants (Rate each category for each person 0,1,2,3)

Additional Comments: (Individual accomplishments, etc.)

Participants’ Signatures:

(Communications 11 and 12, 1985, pp. 86-87. Used by permission of British Columbia Ministry of Education.)

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Sample Assessment for Discussion Activities

Group: ____________________________________       Date: __________________

(Oster, Iveson, & McClay, 1989, p. 244. Reproduced with the permission of Prentice Hall Canada Inc.)

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Sample Assessment for Group Discussion

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Sample Rubric for Group Discussion

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Sample Storytelling Checklist

This form can be used by student, peer, or teacher.

(Mowbray & George, 1992, p. 55. Used by permission of Pembroke Publishers Ltd.)

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Sample Assessment for Oral Interpretation

Name: ___________________________________ Selection: ______________________
Date: ___________________________________

Some of the items listed in this checklist (e.g., pronunciation) can vary across cultures and in accordance with the situation. Teachers should also be aware of second language and dialectical differences that can be present in students’ speech, and adapt their assessment instruments accordingly.

Circle a mark for each section. Excellent is 10. Poor is 1. The other numbers are somewhere between. For instance, 5 or 6 would be average.

Comments:

(Booth, Cameron, & Lashmar, Vol. 3, 1986, p. 64. Reproduced with the permission of Prentice Hall Canada Inc.)

Group II: Activities for Less-used Types of Speech

Group II activities include many speaking activities that are found in daily life as well as in the classroom. They are important because they expand students’ oral language repertoires.

Introductions

Students should have some opportunities to practise introducing guest speakers, as this is a skill frequently used in adult life. The introduction should be brief and interesting. The students’ most important job is to tell who is speaking and why. They should include information that will catch the attention of the audience and that is complimentary to the speaker. Students should make sure all words are pronounced correctly, especially the speaker’s name, which should be mentioned at the beginning and at the end.

Some teaching suggestions for practising introductions include:

• Students can role play introducing a government official (celebrity, author, or a noted professional) to a school assembly. They can include a name, title, and any biographical information they wish. Students should write out their introduction and then deliver it without notes.

• Students can, in pairs, introduce themselves and their partner to another pair of students.

• Students can take the responsibility of introducing a new student to the class.

• Students can write a one to two minute tribute or testimonial to a classmate. The tribute should be personal but not embarrassing.

Interviews

An interview can often be an effective method of obtaining information. Students will be interviewed whenever they apply for work. Many of them will become the interviewers in the future.

When students are involved in research prior to an interview, they should:

1. Find sources. Decide who is the best person to talk to regarding the subject and contact that person. If using the telephone, students should:
   • research beforehand--find the name, title, and position of the person to whom they need to speak
   • explain the purpose of the call--have all the relevant material and information at hand
   • be sensitive to tone--speak clearly, slowly, and pleasantly--and consider the interviewee’s time restrictions
   • take notes
   • follow up--often a thank-you note is appropriate.

2. Plan questions ahead of time. Students should decide what they want to know and plan questions that will require elaboration (rather than "yes" or "no"). As well, they should record and sequence questions.

3. Conduct the interview, remembering to:
   • arrive or call on time
   • ensure that the person being interviewed understands the purpose of the interview
   • ask the interviewee if a tape recorder may be used
   • if writing, make sure direct quotations are recorded accurately
   • let the person being interviewed do most of the talking
   • use voice tone, body language, and encouraging comments to show interest
   • ask for clarification if meaning is not clear
   • be polite and sensitive.

4. End the interview by thanking the interviewee.

5. Synthesize the information collected and organize it for presentation.

Some activities for practising interviews are as follows:

Teachers or students can identify possible jobs using want ads or government publications. With a partner, students list questions that they anticipate may be asked in a particular job interview. They write answers to the questions, then take turns role playing the interview. After each interview, they should review their performance. Students can be chosen to role play good interview technique for the whole group.

At the beginning of a course, students prepare questions to ask a peer. They interview the person and, with that information, introduce their partner to the class. A variation would have students presenting an award to their partner (e.g., most likely to succeed in the hockey world, the next Oscar-winning actor, the top engineering graduate). Props, such as home made trophies, can be presented.

Students can role play characters from literature and the media. For example, Oprah interviews Polonius concerning the relationship between Ophelia and Hamlet, or Jay Leno interviews Jem Finch ten years after To Kill a Mockingbird ends.

With a partner, students can prepare and conduct a mock telephone interview with a well-known author, sports figure, or literary character.

Media interviews: This type of interview is an important tool for journalists and can be easily used for the study of interviewing techniques.

Job interviews: Most students will participate in job interviews at some point in their lives. The interview gives the employer an opportunity to form a first-hand impression of applicants and, therefore, it is important to create a good impression. Students need to be prepared for a job interview. They should:

1. Research the job. Find out as much as possible about the job beforehand. Anticipate questions that may be asked and formulate answers. Consider questions like the following:
   • Why are you interested in this job?
   • Why do you think you can be successful in this job?
   • What experience do you have that will assist you in this job?
   • What has been your best work experience?
   • Where do you see yourself five years from now?

2. Dress appropriately.

3. Be on time. Go alone. Smile and shake hands firmly with the interviewer(s).

4. Listen carefully to the questions asked. Answer thoughtfully. Speak clearly. Use appropriate body language. Do not slouch, chew gum, or smoke.

5. Exhibit confidence in yourself.

6. Ask questions about the job. Thank the interviewer.

7. Follow up on the interview. Make some notes, evaluate performance, and write a thank-you card.

Some activities for practising interviews are as follows:

• Teachers or students can identify possible jobs using want ads or government publications. With a partner, students list questions that they anticipate may be asked in a particular job interview. They write answers to the questions, then take turns role playing the interview. After each interview, they should review their performance. Students can be chosen to role play good interview technique for the entire class.

• At the beginning of a course, students prepare questions to ask a peer. They interview the person and, with that information, introduce their partner to the class. A variation would have students presenting an award to their partner (e.g., most likely to succeed in the hockey world, the next Oscar-winning actor, the top engineering graduate). Props, such as home made trophies, can be presented.

• Students can role play characters from literature and the media. For example, Oprah interviews Polonius concerning the relationship between Ophelia and Hamlet, or Jay Leno interviews Jem Finch ten years after To Kill a Mockingbird ends.

• With a partner, students can prepare and conduct a mock telephone interview with a well-known author, sports figure, or literary character.

Panel discussions

Panel discussions occur when a group discusses an issue by pooling its knowledge and working toward a solution. Panel discussions encourage the sharing of different views. They encourage participants and audience to adopt an attitude of inquiry. They also allow for audience participation. A panel is usually made up of three to seven people and the format is similar to the following:

1. Opening remarks by the chairperson.

2. Introduction of speakers.

3. Formal presentation by panel members of different points of view or aspects of the issue.

4. Informal exchange of comments, additions, and rebuttals.

5. Audience’s questions and comments.

Some teaching suggestions for panel discussions follow:

• Students take a current school or social issue (e.g., school hours, divorce, or unemployment) and research the topic so that they can form a panel discussion to address the issues, their impact, and possible solutions.

• Students imagine that a character from literature (e.g., Macbeth or Grendel) has called together the best astrologers to predict the future. They stage a panel discussion in which the astrologers share their predictions, explaining what can be expected. All predictions should relate in some way to the character selected (e.g., time period).

• Students are assigned to a group of five. Each student will research the life, work, and contributions of a given author. Work assignments can be as follows:

  Student One: Provide the introduction and biographical information.

  Students Two, Three, and Four: Discuss the author’s work and critiques of the work.

  Student Five: Give an overview of the author’s contributions and a conclusion.

  Students present their findings in a panel format. Time guidelines (e.g., 15-20 minutes per group) are given. Teachers may also ask for a written submission--sources, notes, outline.

Symposiums

Symposiums are formal public discussions in which individuals present speeches giving their own views on a pre-selected topic or question. The topic is open to debate and the goal of the symposium is to explore the question and to consider various perspectives and possible answers. In contrast with an informal discussion and panel discussion, the participants prepare and present formal speeches based on their independent research, rather than speaking spontaneously in response to questions from the leader or moderator.

Each participant prepares a formal speech based on his or her research. The moderator introduces the symposium and each speaker, leads the discussions that follow the individual presentations, and summarizes the symposium.

Business meetings

Business meetings are structured discussions which lead to group decisions. Most students will be involved in numerous organizations during their lifetimes and will benefit from knowing the basics of parliamentary procedure, which allows for meetings to run smoothly and efficiently. Students should be aware that formal meetings usually follow this pattern:

1. Call to order by the chairperson.

2. Approval of agenda and adoption of the minutes of the previous meeting.

3. Business arising from the previous meeting.

4. Reports of various committees.

5. New business.

6. Correspondence and announcements.

7. Adjournment by the chairperson.

Students can benefit from learning the terminology of business meetings and practising such aspects as planning an agenda, chairing a meeting, writing minutes, making and amending motions, voting, and addressing the chair. Students must accept responsibility to contribute and listen to the contributions of others. They must strive to stick to the topic at hand and respect the chairperson’s authority.

Students often have difficulty with the format of making motions. A motion leads to a group decision through the following process:

1. The person making the motion begins by saying, "I move that ...".

2. A motion requires a "seconder", a person who agrees that this motion should be discussed: "I second the motion."

3. A discussion of the motion follows. Anyone wishing to speak is acknowledged by the chairperson before speaking. Generally, a person is allowed to speak to a motion twice.

4. As the discussion nears an end, the chairperson asks, "Is there any further discussion?" If not, voting follows. Motions are generally voted on by a show of hands. The chairperson votes only if there is a tie.

Robert’s Rules of Order or similar documents provide further information on amending and tabling motions.

Some teaching suggestions for business meetings are:

• Teachers might organize a class business meeting to decide upon some class action (e.g., changing a rule or procedure). Half the class members are participants; the other half write the minutes. These minutes are then read to the class and constructively criticized.

• Teachers can arrange for students to attend a Student Council or Municipal/Town/City/Band Council meeting. In class, students can critique what they saw and heard.

• Teachers can divide the class into small groups. Each group enters into a role play situation, chooses a chair, and organizes a class presentation to demonstrate one of the following parliamentary procedures:
  • Electing a temporary chairperson and secretary for a new club.
  • Forming a committee to draw up a constitution and by-laws.
  • Calling a meeting to order, reading the minutes, correcting and approving the minutes, and reading the treasurer's report.
  • Presenting committee reports and voting on their adoption.
  • Calling for the nomination of officers, closing the nominations, and voting by secret ballot.
  • Amending and tabling a motion.

• Teachers can select a controversial topic for a business meeting, appoint a chairperson to keep order, and privately ask several students to misbehave during the discussion (e.g., speak without being recognized, interrupt other speakers, wander of f topic). After ten minutes, teachers can end the discussion and ask students to comment on the meeting.

Formal Speeches

A formal speech is a spoken essay and, like an essay, it can be used to inform or explain, to persuade, or to entertain. Effective speeches are carefully prepared, thoroughly rehearsed, sincere, and energetically delivered. Students should always consider audience, purpose, and situation. They should use appropriate language and verbal and nonverbal presentation elements for their audience, in order to communicate effectively and show respect for their audience.

1. Preparation
   • Students should choose a topic that meets the requirements of the given assignment, interests them, and will interest their audience.
   • Students should research the topic and determine the amount of material that can be presented in the stipulated time.
   • Students should organize their material, ensuring that their speech has an introduction, body, and conclusion. They should use common transitional phrases (e.g., first, another example is, in conclusion) so the audience will be able to follow their train of thought.

2. Rehearsal
   • Students should review their speech, paying attention to overall effectiveness and to the small, but important, details of pronunciation and word choice.
   • Students should put the speech in the format they will use for presentation (e.g., index cards).
   • Students should practise their speeches aloud, concentrating on projection, pauses, gestures, pace, and tone.
   • Students should critique their speech. They could get a practice audience or tape their speech.

3. Delivery
   • Students should begin their speeches by taking deep breaths and looking at their audience. Good posture should be maintained throughout the presentation.
   • Students should begin with energy and capture their audience’s attention. There are several ways to accomplish this: startling statement, quotation, rhetorical question, short anecdote, and humour.
   • Students should practise good delivery: pacing, pausing, articulating, enunciating, and using appropriate eye contact, volume, and pitch.
   • Students should remember their audience and speak to it.
   • Students should end with power. They might consider one of the following methods of concluding: summary, anecdote, restatement of thesis, example or illustration, call for audience action, quotation, or humour.

Illustrated talks

An illustrated talk or report involves the co-ordination of spoken and visual materials. Students might use posters, charts, graphs, slides, video, overhead projector, chalkboard, props, or handouts. The following guidelines can help make their talk effective:

• Use illustrations only if words alone will not do the job.
• Use only illustrations that can be seen and understood.
• Practise using the illustrations until you are completely comfortable with them.
• Do not stand between the audience and the illustrations. Speak to the audience, not the illustrations.
• Focus on the words, not the illustrations. Do not try to overwhelm the audience. Do not sacrifice the words for the props.

Some teaching suggestions include:

• Begin by choosing topics with which students are already familiar. However, encourage students to go beyond this comfort zone to explore other possibilities and learn something new. Consideration might be given, for example, to the purpose for a speech. Students might present a speech to inform (e.g., How to Succeed as a Speaker), to convince (e.g., Speeches are Good for Teenagers), to move to action (e.g., Improve Your Speech!), or to entertain (e.g., My Moment in the Spotlight).

• Topics can easily parallel what is being read and discussed in the classroom. For example, if investigating careers, students can speak about a particular career; if reading Canadian literature, students can research and speak about the life and times of an author with whom they were not familiar; if exploring the area of science fiction, students can research and speak about a particular aspect of the unknown.

• Teachers can invite guest speakers who will model effective speech or they can show videos of effective speakers from different cultural backgrounds.

• Students can bring an item to class "to sell". They select a slip of paper that indicates their intended audience (e.g., small children, scientists, pet owners, doctors) and deliver their two-minute sales pitch to that audience.

• Students choose a process they can demonstrate (e.g., a card trick, a home repair, pet care) and in three to five minutes demonstrate using an introduction, an explanation, a demonstration, and a conclusion.

Announcements

An announcement is a short statement designed to give information and arouse interest. Announcements are like the leads of news stories in that they answer the five "Ws" (who, what, when, where, and why). As announcements are common in school and out, students can benefit from some experience in this area.

Students should:

• include all necessary facts
• speak slowly and distinctly
• repeat key information (e.g., date, time, and place) for emphasis.

If using a microphone, students should know microphone technique:

• do not touch the microphone
• keep volume consistent
• maintain appropriate and constant distance from the microphone
• articulate
• use a medium pitched tone
• maintain a normal speaking rate and volume
• avoid coughing, clearing throat, or shuffling papers.

Some teaching ideas include:

• Students can practise making short announcements urging attendance at given events (e.g., a dance, an exam, a soccer game).

• Students could make announcements related to events in literature (e.g., urging attendance at the expulsion of the Acadians or Hagar Shipley’s funeral).

• Students can write announcements of upcoming events. Each student should leave out pieces of important information (e.g., time, place, or cost). Each student then reads the announcement and asks the listeners to identify what was omitted.

Assessment of Group II Speaking Activities

Assessing formal speaking is a complex process. Teachers should be sensitive to the many factors involved in public speaking. Teachers should not expect perfection but should take students from where they are and help them become more effective public speakers. Teachers may need to adapt assessment instruments to accommodate students from different linguistic or cultural backgrounds. They should consider the purpose of the activity and provide an appropriate amount of feedback for the assignment.

Hook and Evans (1982) suggest a possible method for appraising individuals’ contributions to panel discussions that would work well with discussions of almost any type. They suggest that teachers keep a tally sheet and mark each time a student speaks. A plus (+) indicates a helpful contribution, a zero (0) indicates a neutral one, and a minus (-) indicates a contribution that is "digressing, sidetracking, blocking, or overly aggressive" (p. 435). For example,

Student One: 0+++000000
Student Two: ++++
Student Three: 00--0--
Student Four: 000++

The forms on the following pages can be adapted for assessment of Group II Speaking Activities:

• Sample Assessment for Introducing a Speaker
• Sample Assessment for Research Interview
• Sample Assessment for Group Presentation
• Sample Rubric for Group Presentation
• Sample Assessment for Panel Discussions
• Sample Individual Profile for a Business Meeting
• Sample Assessment for Formal Speaking: Form One
• Sample Assessment for Formal Speaking: Form Two.

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Sample Assessment for Introducing a Speaker

Name: __________________________________ Date: __________________________

Circle a mark for each section. Excellent is 10. Poor is 1. The other numbers are somewhere between. For instance, 5 or 6 would be average.

Comments:

(Booth, Cameron, & Lashmar, Vol. 2, 1986, p. 62. Reproduced with the permission of Prentice Hall Canada Inc.)

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Sample Assessment for Research Interview

Subject: ______________________________________ Date: ______________________

Interviewer: __________________________________

Interviewee: __________________________________

P = poor A = average G = good E = excellent

Strengths of this interview (identify two):

Target for improvement (identify one):

Additional Comments:

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Sample Assessment for Group Presentation

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Sample Rubric for Group Presentation

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Sample Assessment for Panel Discussions

Some of the items listed in this checklist (e.g., rate) can vary across cultures and in accordance with the situation. Teachers should also be aware of second language and dialectical differences that can be present in students’ speech, and adapt their assessment instruments accordingly.

For each item listed, circle a mark out of 10.

(Booth, Cameron, & Lashmar, 1986, p. 62. Reproduced with the permission of Prentice Hall Canada Inc.)

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Sample Individual Profile for a Business Meeting

Name: _________________________________________________________

Date: __________________________________________________________

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Sample Assessment for Formal Speaking: Form One

Speaker: _________________________ Date of Presentation: _____________________

Some of the items listed below (e.g., eye contact, pacing, expression) can vary across cultures and in accordance with the situation. Teachers should also be aware of second language and dialectical differences that can be present in students’ speech, and adapt their assessment instruments accordingly.

(Adapted from Shaparro & Trost, 1985, p. 29. Used by permission of McDougal, Littell and Co.)

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Sample Assessment for Formal Speaking: Form Two

Speaker: _______________________________________ Date: ___________________

Topic: _________________________________________ Audience: ________________

Some of the items listed in this checklist (e.g., pronunciation, rate, eye contact) can vary across cultures and in accordance with the situation. Teachers should also be aware of second language and dialectical differences that can be present in students’ speech, and adapt their assessment instruments accordingly.

Students could be given the option to weight their delivery more or less than the content of their presentation (e.g., 60 percent for content and 40 percent for delivery or vice versa). The teacher might also vary the allocations depending on the focus of learning.

Group III: Activities for More Limited Types of Speech

Group III speaking experiences are those required during special situations in life. In English language arts courses, they are used primarily to further the understanding and appreciation of issues.

Debating

Debating is a discussion of the arguments for and against something and can be either formal or informal. Even two people can have a debate. A useful classroom debate format follows:

1. Decide on a topic and a proposition. For example, "Be it resolved that Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet is relevant to today’s youth".

2. Choose four students. Two students take the affirmative. They research and attempt to defend Romeo and Juliet’s relevance. The other two students refute the resolution. They attempt to prove that Romeo and Juliet is not relevant.

3. The four students alternate, each presenting speeches of a pre-determined time (e.g., five minutes). The order is:
   • first affirmative
   • first negative
   • second affirmative
   • second negative.

4. Each of the four is allowed a few minutes to disprove the other team's arguments. The order is:
   • first negative
   • first affirmative
   • second negative
   • second affirmative.

5. The class may direct questions to the four debaters.

6. A vote is taken.

Debates can be structured so they involve an entire class. Cruchley (1984) developed the following format for a full-class debate:

1. Establish an issue with the class.

2. Divide the class into pro and con. Rearrange the desks to have the two sides face each other.

3. Each student independently records ideas and proofs to justify his/her assigned position.

4. Begin with the affirmative.

5. Use the following rules:
   • Each student is given five points the first time speaking.
   • Students get a point for each idea presented.
   • Students get two points for each proof cited or example given.
   • Points will be deducted if a student speaks without being recognized by the chair, insults the opponents, etc.
   • A student may speak only twice.

The chairperson keeps a running tally of points accumulated.

Activities to practise debating might include:

• Students select teams of three or four to debate any of the following: a school issue (e.g., "Be it resolved that the school year be changed"), a youth issue (e.g., "Be it resolved that the driving age be nineteen"), or a social issue (e.g., "Be it resolved that upgraders be charged a fee to attend school").

• Students can place a character from literature "on trial" (e.g., Ralph in Lord of the Flies: "Should Ralph be tried?"). At the end of the trial, students should be polled for their verdicts.

• Students can prepare a "formal" debate using research (e.g., "Be it resolved that immigration policies be changed").

In formal debates, attention must be paid to conventions and time lines.

Drama

Drama can play an important role in the language arts classroom. Through imaginative role playing, and voice and movement exercises, students can use drama as a basis for learning. They can express themselves, experiment with new ideas, respond to situations, develop understanding, concentrate, and gain confidence.

Role playing and improvisation: These are the bases of much drama. Choral reading, readers theatre, and play reading can all grow from them. Role playing is pretending that one is another person. Students attempt to think, act, speak, and react as they think that person would. An improvisation is a dramatic representation that has been composed and presented on the spur of the moment. There is no script and the direction the improvisation takes depends upon the students’ interpretation of character. Role playing and improvisation may arise from literary selections (e.g., Dracula meets Lady Macbeth) or they may arise from issues (e.g., a clerk accuses a teenager of stealing).

There are many possibilities for role playing and improvisation in the language arts. For example:

• During the reading of a selection, students can improvise their predictions of what will happen next to the characters.

• If studying a particular theme or issue, students can role play different situations that would demonstrate that theme or issue.

• If studying a particular selection, students in pairs or small groups can role play a situation similar to the story. Teachers provide the scenario. If students are studying Ernest Buckler’s First Born Son, for example, teachers could provide the following situation: Your parents want you to stay on the farm but you want to move to Calgary. You love your parents, but .... Improvise the scene.

• Students can write, prepare, and deliver monologues of characters (e.g., Malcolm recalling his father’s murder, Bob remembering his last climb with David, Walsh thinking through what he is going to tell his wife).

• Students can select passages in which different people talk about the same experience (e.g., living in an internment camp, living through a snow storm, receiving an unexpected gift). Each reader assumes the personality of a character and improvises a new scene.

Choral Reading

Choral reading is oral reading in unison with others. (This activity is called choral speaking when students recite rather than read a selection.) Choral reading works particularly well with poetry. Participation in choral reading helps students imp rove their literary interpretation and oral reading as they practise their articulation, breathing, and vocal flexibility. They learn to co-operate as their voices blend or harmonize with others. As students select a piece of literature and prepare it f or presentation, they need to consider four questions in order to produce the desired interpretation:

• What should the tempo be?

• Where should we pause?

• Where should we raise/lower our voices?

• Which words should be stressed?

Three possible choral reading/speaking arrangements for poetry are:

• Choral Refrain: The leader reads each line and the group repeats it, or the leader reads the main part of the poem and the group reads the refrain or chorus in unison. Barbara Allen, Stolen Child, and Blow, Blow Thou Winter Wind lend themselves to this method.

• Antiphonal: The class divides into two or more groups and each group reads one part of the poem. Psalm 24, Lord Randall, and Molly Malone lend themselves to this arrangement.

• Cumulative: A cumulative effect is created by adding voices as the poem is read. One student or one group reads the first line or stanza, and another student or group joins as each additional line or stanza is read. The Creation, Jazz Fantasia, and Chicago lend themselves to this format.

Students can explore different combinations of these patterns.

Readers Theatre

Readers theatre is a dramatic form in which students read aloud from scripts. Ideas and emotions are conveyed through vocal expression with a minimal use of props and gestures. The focus is on the vocal rather than the visual. Readers theatre benefits both audience and performers. The audience is stimulated intellectually and emotionally by the performance; the performers are challenged to use their imagination and voice. Stories, diaries, essays, poems, plays, and novel segments lend themselves t o readers theatre. Because it does not rely on scenery or other visual props, readers theatre can be performed anywhere. It can be staged in a number of ways. See the examples on the following page.

Readers theatre can be very useful to English language arts teachers because it presents literature without all the complexities involved in an actual stage production. In adapting literature to readers theatre, students should consider the following criteria:

• Content should be interesting and compelling.

• It should involve conflict and multi-dimensional characters.

• The language should be vivid and descriptive.

(Tanner, 1991, p. 344. Used with permission of Clark Publishing Co.)

Chamber Theatre is a variation of readers theatre. A narrator is used and other members of the group act out what the narrator is saying. Some possibilities for readers theatre and chamber theatre include A Christmas Carol, Our Town, A Rope Against the Sun, and The Last Night of the World.

Plays, of course, are written to be heard. When students read plays aloud their voices should reflect an appropriate interpretation.

Assessment of Group III Speaking Activities

The assessment forms on the following pages can be adapted and used by teachers, students, or peers when evaluating Group III speaking activities:

Sample Assessment Form for Debate
Sample Parliamentary Debate Assessment
Sample Assessment for Role Playing
Sample Assessment for Choral Reading
Sample Assessment for Readers Theatre.

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Sample Assessment Form for Debate

This form can be used for the assessment of an individual or a team by self, peers, or teacher.

Rating scales: Superior - 1, Excellent - 2, Good - 3, Fair - 4, Poor - 5

Debater(s):

(Adapted from Hanks, 1975, p. 81. Used with permission of J. Weston Walch Publisher.)

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Sample Parliamentary Debate Assessment

Debaters: ____________________________________________________

Date: _____________________________

(Government Leader)	Low High	1. Government Leader - 5 min. 2. First Speaker (negative) - 5 min. 3. Second Speaker (affirmative) - 5 min. 4. Second Speaker (negative) - 5 min. 5. Third Speaker (affirmative) - 5 min. 6. Third Speaker (negative) - 7 min. 7. Government Leader Rebuttal - 2 min.
Analysis Evidence Organization Delivery Total _____	1 2 3 4 5
First Speaker (Negative)
Analysis Evidence Organization Delivery Total _____	1 2 3 4 5
Second Speaker (Affirmative)
Analysis Evidence Organization Delivery Total _____	1 2 3 4 5
Second Speaker (Negative)
Analysis Evidence Organization Delivery Total _____	1 2 3 4 5
Third Speaker (Affirmative)
Analysis Evidence Organization Delivery Total _____	1 2 3 4 5
Third Speaker (Negative)
Analysis Evidence Organization Delivery Total _____	1 2 3 4 5

(Mowbray & George, 1992, pp. 67-68. Used with permission of Pembroke Publishers Ltd.)

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Sample Assessment for Role Playing

Student’s Name: _________________________________________

Date: _________________________________

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Sample Assessment for Choral Reading

Student’s Name: _______________________________ Date: _____________________

Some of the items listed in this checklist (e.g., pronunciation, eye contact) can vary across cultures and in accordance with the situation. Teachers should also be aware of second language and dialectical differences that can be present in students&# 146; speech, and adapt their assessment instruments accordingly.

Rate student’s work in rehearsal and performance of choral reading according to the following rating and criteria.

P = Poor A = Average G = Good E = Excellent

(Tanner, 1991, p. 337. Used with permission of Clark Publishing Co.)

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Sample Assessment for Readers Theatre

Student’s Name: ___________________________________ Date: _________________

Some of the items listed in this checklist (e.g., pronunciation, rate, eye focus) can vary across cultures and in accordance with situation. Teachers should also be aware of second language and dialectical differences that can be present in students&# 146; speech, and adapt their assessment instruments accordingly.

Rate student’s work in rehearsal and performance of a readers theatre program according to the following rating and criteria: P = poor A = average G = good E = excellent

Comments:

(Adapted from Tanner, 1991, p. 34. Used with permission of Clark Publishing Co.)

Group IV: Activities for Primarily Professional Types of Speech

Speech activities related to specialized situations (e.g., toasts, election speeches, acceptance speeches, etc.) can help prepare students for entering certain professions. However,

Teaching the types of speaking needed for professional work is primarily the responsibility of the college or vocational school, not of the high school. The foundation for the specialized speech required of a salesperson or minister are laid in the elementary and high schools, but detailed work is possible only later, when one enters his or her vocation (Hook & Evans, 1982, p. 436).

If there is a natural opportunity for practising Group IV speech activities, teachers should seize that opportunity. For instance, as students approach graduation, teachers may help them with their addresses and toasts.

Oral communication should be at the heart of the curriculum. It is neither difficult nor expensive for teachers to improve the communication climate of their classrooms to help students learn more effectively.