Instructional Approaches

Using a Variety of Approaches

This section of the curriculum guide is intended to be used in conjunction with other resources that explain and model instructional approaches and strategies. Teachers are advised to refer to Instructional Approaches: A Framework for Professional Practice (Saskatchewan Education, 1991) for more information on instructional approaches. The Saskatchewan Professional Development Unit (SPDU) and Saskatchewan Instructional Development and Research Unit (SIDRU) have produced a series of practical documents that complement the description of instructional strategies in this curriculum. Information on this series can be found in Health Education: An Initial List of Implementation Materials for the Elementary Level (Saskatchewan Education, 1998) under the title Instructional Strategies Series.

Instructional methods can be grouped into five clusters:

• Direct Instruction
  

• Indirect Instruction
  
• Interactive Instruction
  
• Experiential Learning
  
• Independent Study.

It is strongly advised that teachers use a variety of instructional methods in each of the five strategies in order to:

• emphasize both process and content in various subject areas;
  

• address a variety of learning styles;
  
• meet individual student needs;
  
• foster the attitudes, skills and knowledge needed for independent, life-long learning.

In the following pages, some of the most commonly used instructional methods will be described as they pertain to health education at the elementary level. These methods are listed in alphabetical order to facilitate access.

Brainstorming

Description

Brainstorming is a technique for generating ideas. It is based upon the belief that when a great number of ideas are generated, the chances of uncovering a good idea or solution are increased. Ground rules are essential for this activity to be effective and successful:

• all critical judgment is suspended. List all ideas without judging them. Passing judgment inhibits creativity and decreases the number of ideas generated;
  

• quantity is more important than quality;
  
• build on other peoples’ ideas and modify them;
  
• ensure that all students participate.

The activity stops when the group runs out of ideas or the allotted time expires. Ask for single word or single phrase items and write everything down. Rules for brainstorming should be posted where all students may see them.

When all ideas have been generated, they can be combined or categorized.

Adaptations

•  
  

• Once the students are familiar with the procedure, provide opportunities for them to use it in small groups or individually.

Applications

• Brainstorming is often used in Level A of the Decision-making Process, to focus students’ attention on what they know and feel about an issue.
  

• In Level B of the Decision-making Process, brainstorming is useful for generating possible options to address an issue.

Case Studies

Description

Case studies refer to assigned scenarios based on real life situations. The case study approach tells a story about a specific scenario to which students are encouraged to respond.

• Students should be encouraged to determine their own issues and develop case studies that are personally relevant or interesting.
  

• Teachers should accumulate and keep on file actual case study situations from the playground, the classroom, the community or the media for use with their students.

Adaptation

• Students may respond to a case study individually, in small groups or as a class.
  

• Students may respond to a case study in writing, through a drawing or through various drama in context strategies.

Applications

• Case studies are useful in Level B of the Decision-making Process, as students explore possible options and their consequences.
  

• Case studies are ideal for students to practise using the Decision-making Process in simulated real life situations.

Contracts

Description

A contract refers to an agreement between a student, or a group of students, and a teacher regarding what activity will be undertaken, who will do it, how it will be done, and when it will be completed.

Applications

Learning contracts are used at Level C of the Decision-making Process in Health Education. Designing and applying action plans requires students to state how exactly they are planning to implement decisions they make. The learning contract is a useful tool within this context.

Cooperative Learning

Description

Cooperative learning involves students working in small groups to complete a task or project. The task is structured in such a way that involvement of each group member contributes to completion of the task. Success is based on the performance of the group rather than on the performance of individual group members.

Cooperative learning stresses interdependence and promotes cooperation rather than competition.

There are many different methods of structuring cooperative learning activities. Common guidelines include:

• groups should be heterogeneous. They should include students of varying abilities and cultural and linguistic backgrounds;
  

• small group activities run most efficiently with two to five members;
  
• the group task must be structured in such a way that the involvement of each group member is necessary to complete the task. Each student is responsible for some part of the task;
  
• individuals must be aware of their responsibilities. They must be accountable to the group and for their own learning;
  
• the teacher should discuss and model desired collaborative skills and observing students’ demonstration of those skills as they participate in cooperative learning activities;
  
• students must be provided with the opportunity to reflect individually and as a group on what they have accomplished both academically and socially. Students should be encouraged to evaluate the process as well as the final product. They should reflect on their cooperative skills;
  
• checklists or journal writing may be used for self-reflection or for initiating group discussions on cooperative learning activities.

Adaptation

• Initially, teachers will group the students. As the students become familiar with the strategy, they should have increased opportunities to choose group members.

Applications

Cooperative activities are essential within the health education program. Such activities help:

• increase students’ respect for, and understanding of, each others’ abilities, interests and needs;
  

• promote peer cooperation;
  
• increase student self-esteem;
  
• encourage students to take responsibility for their learning.

Focused Imaging

Description

Focused imaging provides the opportunity for students to experience events or situations vicariously.

• Prior to the lesson, create a script describing a specific situation, drawing upon as many senses as possible.
  

• Prepare the students by suggesting a relaxation activity.
  
• Ensure a relaxed atmosphere throughout the session.
  
• Invite the students to focus on an image in their minds, such as a blank piece of paper. Then describe the situation from the script, leaving pauses for students to create their own mental images.
  
• Return the students to the image they created in their mind at the beginning of the activity (e.g., the blank piece of paper), and invite them to focus their attention back to the classroom.
  
• Discuss the experience, encouraging the students to share the images created and the feelings aroused.
  
• Various follow-up activities may be used to enhance the effectiveness of a focused imaging session. The students might:
  • write in their journals about thoughts related to the experience
    
  • draw some of the images they created in their minds
    
  • mime, role play or create a tableau of a scene that might follow the one described during the focused imaging session
    
  • brainstorm options available for dealing with the situation described in the script and explore consequences of the options suggested.

Adaptation

• If the students have never experienced this method before, explain to them the purpose of the activity and the procedure which will be followed.
  

• Students may or may not keep their eyes closed during a focused imaging session.
  
• It is important to leave the option for students not to participate if they are uncomfortable. However, remind the students who wish not to participate that the rest of the group needs a quiet, undisturbed atmosphere for this activity.
  
• Students should not be forced to share the images or feelings evoked by the focused imaging session. Remind the students that they might write a "private" entry in their journals if they wish to do so.

Applications

• In Level A of the Decision-making Process, focused imaging helps students to draw upon prior knowledge and experiences.
  

• Use focused imaging sessions to enhance the students’ awareness of factors which influence the decisions we make, or the way in which we implement the decisions we make (e.g., lack of time, various types of pressures, conflicting expectations from various people, unforeseen obstacles). Possible scripts are suggested as examples in the sample units in this curriculum guide.
  
• Encourage students to use focused imaging to mentally rehearse assertiveness skills.
  
• Focused imaging improves expression of feeling, enhances self-esteem.

Journals

Description

A journal contains students’ thoughts, feelings and reflections on various topics or experiences. The following guidelines should be observed for an effective implementation of this method within the health education program:

• the primary purpose of journals is to explore ideas and to communicate with oneself. Students should be told that they may mark an entry as "private". Reassure the students that such entries will never be shared with anyone without their consent;
  

• when responding to journal entries, teachers might offer advice, lend a sympathetic ear to the student, or ask questions to guide the student’s decision making;
  
• students should be told that they may ask anyone (a trusted friend, a parent, the teacher) to read and respond to a journal entry;
  
• attention to mechanics, neatness, or organization should not be part of journal writing. Rather, the focus should be on the issue at hand, and on expressing feelings and ideas;
  
• review journal entries with students to identify their interests and concerns, and the skills and knowledge needed for further growth and achievement;
  
• journal entries should always be dated;
  
• periodically, and at the end of the year, ask the students to reread their journals, and look for specific instances of their own growth and change.

Adaptation

• Journal entries may include drawings.
  

• Initial teacher guidance is crucial. Ask open-ended questions so as to stimulate the students’ thoughts, feelings and ideas.
  
• It would be beneficial if the teacher kept a journal and occasionally shared entries with the class. In this way the students can appreciate that the teacher can learn with them, and is willing to share with them.
  
• Once the students are familiar with journals, suggest that they initiate writing or drawing in their journals to express their feelings, explore ways of dealing with situations they encounter, or reflect on anything that is important to them. Encourage them to decide on their own whether they need someone to respond to a journal entry.

Applications

•  
  

• Journals allow students to reflect on personal experiences and powerful feelings that they may not want to share with others.
  
• Journal reflections are useful within all levels of the Decision-making Process: in Level A, they provide a vehicle for students to reflect on their present situation as it relates to the health topic addressed; in Level B, journal entries may be used to reflect on various options available to students as they pertain to the health topic addressed; in Level C, journals are an excellent tool for students to record the successes and challenges they meet as they are trying to implement decisions.
  
• Students might discuss specific journal entries during conferences.

KWL

Description

• Draw a three-column chart as illustrated below:

K (What I Know)	W (What I Want to Know)	L (What I Learned)

• inform the students that this chart is a useful organizer for researching information on a topic;
  

• invite the students to brainstorm what they know about the topic, reminding them that at this point, there is no wrong answer. Record responses under the column entitled What I (We) Know;
  
• invite the students to go back and circle any response of which they are not absolutely sure. Encourage them to discuss these items and to reflect on the source of their information;
  
• ask the students to generate a list of questions, starting with the circled items from the What I Know column, and then adding to these other questions they might have about the topic. Record questions under the What I Want to Know column;
  
• ask the students how they could find out the answers to their questions. Encourage them to be specific. For instance, if they suggest to look for answers in books, ask what type of books. Adapt this step of the procedure to the extent of the students’ research skills. Incorporate the development of research skills accordingly, referring to the objectives in Appendix B at the end of this document;
  
• the next step - completing the What I Learned column - will also depend on the extent of the students’ research skills. Activities for this step might be as complex as an independent research using multiple resources, or as simple as the students viewing a video or listening to a presentation and taking notes as they hear answers to their questions.;
  
• conclude activities with a reflection and discussion on process:
  • Does any new information contradict what we thought we knew?
    
  • Did we find answers to all our questions? If not, what might we do?
    
  • How helpful was the use of the chart in doing this research?

Adaptation

• Once the students are familiar with the procedure, they can use it in small groups or individually. If activities were done in collaborative groups, include instruction and evaluation of cooperative group work skills.
  

• In some situations, initial responses to the brainstorm session might be recorded first on the chalkboard, then categorized and transferred onto the What I Know column, under subtitles for each category.
  
• Categories might be suggested by the teacher, or the students might come up with their own suggestions for grouping responses.

Applications

• KWL charts are very useful for structuring activities at Level A of the Decision-Making Process.
  

• Starting in grade 3, the students should begin using KWL charts for simple independent research projects.
  
• KWL charts are useful tools for planning and conducting interviews.
  
• The use of KWL charts focuses the students’ attention on the purpose for a reading, listening or viewing experience, and motivates them to search for information.

Lectures

Description

• Lectures are one way to provide information in a relatively short period of time.
  

• However, they should be no longer than 5 minutes in length with young students, 10 minutes for students at the upper elementary level.

Adaptations

• Lectures are more effective when designed to spark group discussion and when main ideas are demonstrated with visual aids such as charts or diagrams.

Applications

• Lectures might be used as part of Level A of the Decision-making Process, to build on students’ prior knowledge of a topic.

Response to Literature

Description

Literature broadens students’ knowledge and understanding of the world and of themselves. As they read or hear stories, students also experience situations vicariously. Literature integrates many personal experiences and stimulates students’ emotions.

Response to literature may occur before, during and after reading:

• invite students to make predictions prior to reading;
  

• interrupt stories at appropriate places to elicit comments, responses or further predictions;
  
• have students respond to the reading through various post-reading activities.

Following are a few of the questions often asked to elicit students’ response related to health education issues or situations:

• What are the characters’ feelings in this picture? How can you tell? Why do you think the character is feeling this way?
  

• What decision does the character have to make? What is the character’s problem?
  
• What are the character’ choices?
  
• What would be the character’s best choice? Why?
  
• What do you think will happen to this character?
  
• What do you think this character will decide to do?
  
• What do you think of the choice the character made? Is it a good choice? Why?
  
• Who helped the character make a good choice?
  
• Did anyone try to get the character to make a choice that would not be so good? Who did? Why would this choice not be good?
  
• What could the character say to the person who is pressuring him or her?
  
• If you could talk or write to the character, what advice would you give to help him or her make a decision?
  
• What would you say or do if you were this character?
  
• How would you feel if you were in this situation?
  
• Who could the character go to for help?
  
• Have you ever been in a situation like this? How did you feel? What did you do?

Adaptation

Students might respond to stories by:

• writing in their journals;
  

• writing a letter to a character;
  
• drawing (various options a character might have; what the character decided to do; a personal experience the story evoked);
  
• doing a mime, a role play, a tableau based on the story;
  
• creating dance phrases based on the story or the feelings it evoked;
  
• creating sound compositions to express feelings evoked by the story;
  
• writing a different ending or a sequel to the story;
  
• ...

Many instructional methods described in English Language Arts: A Curriculum Guide for the Elementary Level (1992) refine and extend students’ personal responses to literature.

Applications

• Use children’s literature in the health education program to show how characters face various issues. Invite students to connect personal experiences to the stories read.
  

• Children’s literature provides opportunities for students to practise using decision-making skills in a non-threatening context.
  
• Response to literature may be used in activities for all three levels of the Decision-making Process, as suggested in the questions listed above.

Venn Diagrams

Description

A Venn diagram is not an instructional method in itself. Rather, it is a tool for recording responses in activities which are based on the compare and contrast instructional method. Venn diagrams may be used for comparing people, places or topics. The following description uses characters as an example to illustrate the step by step procedure for completing a Venn diagram:

• ask the students to describe character A;
  

• record these descriptors on the chalkboard;
  
• repeat for character B;
  
• draw a Venn diagram such as the following:

• explain that in this diagram, the area where the two circles overlap will be used to record things that the two characters have in common. The other areas will be used to record what is unique to each of the characters.

• review the descriptors for each character and ask where the students think they fit;
  

• invite the students to compare how many descriptors are in the overlapping area and how many are in the other areas. Discuss how the diagram helps visualize how much the characters have in common.

Adaptation

• Model the use of Venn diagrams with the whole class before asking the students to compare and contrast subjects on their own.
  

• Venn diagrams are an excellent way to represent visually how similar or how different two subjects are. However, the drawback with Venn diagrams is the lack of space they provide. Statements need to be very concise. An alternate technique for illustrating similarities and differences is to record descriptors of subjects A and B in a two-column table, and then to have the students underline or highlight common descriptors.

Applications

• Provide Venn diagrams as frameworks for the students to compare and contrast the attitudes, behaviours or actions of two characters in a story, or to compare a character’s attitudes, behaviours or actions to their own.
  

• Venn diagrams are useful for demonstrating:
  • that different people may react in different ways
    
  • that different people may face the same situation or challenge differently
    
  • that individuals are unique, and yet share similarities with others.