Knowledge of what constitutes effective teaching and learning has increased significantly. Likewise, knowledge of teaching and learning styles has led to an appreciation of what constitutes the best practice in meeting individual student needs. Learning is an interactive process. Students need to be actively involved in tasks that are achievable, useful, relevant, and challenging if they are to respond successfully to the curriculum challenges posed for them (Instructional approaches: A framework for professional practice, 1991, p. 2).
In any Health Education class, there will naturally be a variety of students who bring with them a variety of preferred learning styles. Students' learning styles are the unique ways in which they prefer to learn. Teachers also have unique learning styles. Teachers 'tend to teach in harmony with their own learning styles' (Instructional approaches: A framework for professional practice, 1991, p. 8). If a teacher consistently teaches using a preferred learning style, there may be numerous students whose learning styles do not match that of the teacher and, therefore, their needs will not be met. To meet the needs of the variety of students in a Health Education class, it is important that teachers utilize a variety of instructional approaches throughout each unit.
Note: Sample units are included in this guide. They are designed in considerable detail and include several instructional strategies and related methods. Sample units are designed in this way for two reasons:
|
Instructional strategies determine the approach a teacher may take to help students achieve learning objectives. Strategies can be classed as direct, indirect, interactive, experiential, or independent.
Instructional methods are used by teachers to create learning environments and to specify the nature of the activity in which the teacher and learner will be involved during the lesson. While particular methods are often associated with certain strategies, some methods may be found within a variety of strategies.
In the following pages, a few of the most commonly used instructional methods from each of five instructional strategies will be described as they pertain to Health Education. Figure 3 on the next page provides an overview.
Figure 3: Instructional Strategies and Methods
Source: Reproduced from Instructional approaches: A framework for professional practice, Saskatchewan Education, Regina, 1991.
The direct instruction strategy is highly teacher centred. The lecture method is a direct instruction example. Mini-lectures are commonly used in the Health Education sample units.
|
Mini-lecture |
The mini-lecture is a one-way type of communication. It is an efficient way of providing information in a short period of time. Health Education mini-lectures are effective when they are:
Mini-lectures are primarily used within the Level A - Extend Knowledge Base portion of the Health Education curriculum design.
Assessment and Evaluation
The purpose of a mini-lecture is to impart knowledge. Appropriate ways of assessing understanding include administering a combination of test items such as essay, short answer, multiple choice, true and false; assigning a cloze procedure; or having students design a concept map.
|
Structured Overview |
A structured overview refers to organizing and arranging topics or concepts to make them meaningful to students. It is often used as an advance organizer at the beginning of a unit.
Assessment and Evaluation
As this is usually used as an organizer, teachers are not likely to assess it.
|
Compare and Contrast |
Compare and contrast involves looking for similarities and differences:
Assessment and Evaluation
The four components of compare and contrast as listed above can be used as criteria in the templates for anecdotal records, checklists, and rating scales located in the Templates for Assessment and Evaluation section of this curriculum guide.
|
Didactic Questions |
These are questions that tend to be convergent and factual. They often begin with 'what', 'where', 'when', or 'how'.
Assessment and Evaluation
Didactic questioning is a strong component of Level C, Step 6, in which students evaluate their progress and revise as needed. The Decision-making Process is used in conjunction with content. The teacher is able to assess the acquisition of content and observe the student's process of evaluating her or his progress by using didactic questions. Because a written assignment or an oral presentation/interview (live or taped) may be the ongoing student activity used for assessment, the teacher can record student progress using a rating scale, checklist, or anecdotal records. The criteria will be based on the content elements as well as the student application of the Decision-making Process.
Content criteria may include:
Process criteria may include evidence of:
The indirect instruction strategy is student centred. Indirect instruction methods are very effective when:
Some examples of indirect instructional methods follow.
|
Concept Maps |
This instructional method can promote creative, meaningful, long-term learning. In the Health Education curriculum, concept mapping is frequently used to encourage students to see the relationships between new information and what they already know.
Concept mapping:
(From C.E.L.s Staff Development Program, 1988.)
Assessment and Evaluation
When concept mapping is used as an engaging activity, a synthesis activity, or one that supplies diagnostic information, it is important to consider the type of information to collect in assessing students' concept maps. Anecdotal records may be the most appropriate data recording method. Teachers might base anecdotal comments on:
These criteria may be inserted into the Anecdotal Record Template found in the next section of this guide.
Novak and Gowin (1984), in Learning How to Learn, suggest assessing student concept maps by scoring the levels of hierarchy identified in the map, the relationships drawn among concepts, and the examples provided.
|
Problem Solving |
Problem solving refers to a process of decision making or a series of steps used by individuals or groups to arrive at answers to questions or the solution to a problem. Steps may include:
Assessment and Evaluation
Teachers may insert these steps into a checklist, rating scale, or anecdotal record template in order to record student information. These steps become the criteria.
|
Case Studies |
Case studies refer to assigned scenarios based on situations in which students observe, analyze, record, implement, conclude, summarize, or recommend.
Assessment and Evaluation
Case studies in Health Education are ideal as ways of assessing student application of Level C, Step 5, in which students design an action plan. Case studies may be used as performance test items. The six steps of the Decision-making Process can be used as criteria on a checklist, anecdotal record form, or rating scale. See also Suggested Checklist to Grade Case Studies using a Decision-Making Process in the Templates section.
|
Reading for Meaning |
Reading for meaning refers to determining information from written text. Meaning is based on the literal and implied meaning of the passage and on the student's experiential and conceptual background.
Assessment and Evaluation
This implies application. Appropriate assessment of application includes performance assessments or performance tests. A sample assessment tool, Checklist to Assess Student's Ability to use Information in Reading for Meaning, is provided in the Templates section of this guide.
|
Reflective Discussion |
Reflective discussion encourages students, individually or as a group, to think more deeply about a topic through discussion.
Assessment and Evaluation
Effective communication skills and the students' contributions to discussions are to be evaluated here. A sample assessment tool, Anecdotal Records in Reflective Discussion, is provided in the Templates section of this guide.
|
Cloze Procedure |
Cloze procedure refers to a strategy in which key words are omitted from a textual passage, requiring students to supply words that construct meaning.
Assessment and Evaluation
The cloze procedure forms the assessment instrument; therefore, the teacher may assess students' responses according to meaning. An anecdotal record may be appropriate to record students' understanding of:
The interactive instructional strategy employs groups of learners. Before the group members 'set to work', it is important that they are aware of what they are to accomplish, how much time they have, and what the recording and/or reporting procedures are.
Successful use of the interactive instructional strategy in Health Education requires that the students be aware of particular group process skills. A few basics include respect for the opinions of others, attentive listening skills, and recording and reporting skills. The sample units are designed to introduce the students to these group process skills and to monitor the students' progress as they practise.
|
Debates |
Preparing for, and presenting in, a debate involves students in a formal contest of skill in reasoned argument.
Assessment and Evaluation
Appropriate assessment techniques may include any of the data recording methods of anecdotal records, observation checklists, or rating scales. A sample rating scale appropriate to debates is found in Student evaluation: A teacher handbook (Saskatchewan Education, 1991).
|
Role Plays |
Role playing refers to an activity in which students in a group have been individually assigned a part or a role to play. This method is often used to learn about group processes or to understand the feelings of others.
Assessment and Evaluation
Teachers may decide on the criteria they will use and insert them in any of the templates for anecdotal records, checklists, or rating scales.
|
Panels |
A panel refers to a small group of students that individually present information or a point of view on an issue in front of the rest of the class under the direction of a moderator.
Assessment and Evaluation
Rating scales, checklists, and anecdotal records are appropriate techniques for assessing students' performance on panels. A Holistic Rating Scale for an Oral Presentation is an example that may be adapted by the teacher. It is found in Student evaluation: A teacher handbook (1991).
|
Peer Practice |
Peer practice involves students in rehearsing skills or conceptual information with a peer.
Assessment and Evaluation
In this curriculum, peer practice is used within Level B, Step 3, in which students state a challenge and explore alternatives and consequences. Teachers may use an anecdotal recording instrument that highlights student participation and contributions.
|
Co-operative Learning Groups |
Co-operative learning groups are heterogeneous with respect to student characteristics and have two to six members sharing the various roles. The jigsaw, explained next in this section, is an example of a co-operative learning group.
Assessment and Evaluation
The self-evaluation instrument, My Group Skills/Performance, is provided in the Templates section of this document.
|
Jigsaw |
Aronson (1978) developed the following method whereby students become 'experts' on a topic and then meet with other 'experts' to study their assigned topic.
To conduct a jigsaw:
For more information, see the Resource Package which is included with the Staff Development Program that accompanies Instructional approaches: A framework for professional practice (1991).
Assessment and Evaluation
The rating scale, Co-operative Group Skills, can be inserted into each student's portfolio and used over time. It is located in the Templates section of this guide.
|
Brainstorming |
Brainstorming is used to generate ideas and imaginative solutions. The teacher or another student acts as facilitator and records student comments.
Brainstorming is most effective when:
When all ideas have been generated, they can be combined or sequenced, and then evaluated according to agreed upon criteria.
In Health Education, brainstorms are used within Level A of the Decision-making Process as a means of reflecting on what students already know and feel about a particular issue. Brainstorming is also used as a means of research, within Level A. Level B makes use of brainstorming as well when students explore alternatives in decision-making.
Assessment and Evaluation
Teachers may decide to assess brainstorming when it is used in the context of co-operative learning groups. Anecdotal records may be the preferred method of recording data. A sample is provided in the Templates section.
Learning contracts and research projects are two independent study methods used in the Health Education curriculum design.
|
Learning Contracts |
Learning contracts are used continuously, in each unit, at Level C of the Health Education curriculum design. Designing and applying an action plan requires students to state their personal goal(s) and design accompanying action plans to meet that goal. Learning contracts in Health Education include support structure(s) and date(s) for evaluation and revision, if necessary.
Assessment and Evaluation
Learning contracts appear in the program as action plans in Level C of the Decision-making Process. To assess these action plans, teachers may wish to refer to the Rating Scale for Action Plans found in the Templates section of this guide.
|
Research Projects |
Research projects are an integral part of Middle Level Health Education. Students are involved in research projects individually, as partners, and as members of small groups.
Assessment and Evaluation
Consult the Templates section of this guide to locate the sample checklist entitled A Framework for Marking a Project or a Written Assignment.
|
Reports |
Reports may be written, graphic, or oral in nature. Their purpose is to encourage students to express their knowledge and ideas about a chosen topic. Reports are used at Level A of the Decision-making Process.
Assessment and Evaluation
When assessing a report, teachers can refer to the following: the Holistic Rating Scale to Mark an Essay, a Framework for Marking a Project or Written Assignment, or a Report Assessment. All three are located in the Templates section of this guide.
|
Homework |
Homework refers to assignments students are given that are to be completed during their time away from the classroom. Homework assignments can be used as an assessment technique and as an instructional method.
Assessment and Evaluation
If homework is assigned for the purpose of assessment, it is important that students are informed of that intent from the outset. Examples of homework include answering assigned questions, creating a model, or writing a summary. The assessment technique needs to match the homework format. Check the Templates section for instruments that are useful. These can be adapted to suit the homework assignment.
The experiential learning strategy can be described in the following ways. It:
|
Field Trips |
Field trips refer to student activities that are conducted for an educational purpose outside the classroom.
Assessment and Evaluation
There are many ways to assess field trips. The choice of assessment is determined by the purpose of the field trip and the expected student outcomes. Teachers need to ensure that assessment techniques match the planned learning objectives.
Questions teachers might ask themselves while planning for assessment and evaluation are: 'What learning objectives does the field trip address?' 'What student groups will be used?' 'Are students working alone or in groups?'.
|
Role Plays |
Role playing refers to an activity in which individual students in a group have been assigned a part or a role to play. Role plays are often used to encourage students to learn about group processes or understand the feelings of others.
Assessment and Evaluation
Students may choose to use role plays as a way of presenting the research they have conducted on a particular topic. Role plays may also be used in Level B of the Decision-making Process, in which students explore alternatives and consequences. A sample checklist to assess a role play, Framework for Marking a Project/Role Play, is included in the Templates section.
|
Surveys |
Conducting surveys involves the collection of information from a sample to determine the frequency of particular responses. Students study survey methods in mathematics at the Middle Level.
Assessment and Evaluation
To assess students' abilities to construct a survey instrument, criteria may be chosen from the checklist entitled Assessing Application (Process) Skills in the Templates section.