The number of Indian and Métis students who are fluent in their mother tongue has declined to the extent that teachers of Indian or Michif languages now use second language teaching strategies. However, although there has been this loss, some o f the students may have been exposed in varying degrees to these languages. The challenge to teachers is to determine and meet the individual needs of these students.
In accordance with the communicative approach, students' abilities, weaknesses and strengths in both English and the Indian or Michif language must be assessed. Appropriate teaching approaches should be utilized to maintain a balance in their understandings of language processes. Sound pedagogical development in one language will enable students to appreciate and acquire skills in the other language.
Language acquisition can occur through first or second language learning. In first language acquisition the student does not consciously study how to speak in a particular language. Rather the information is learned naturally. An infant is surrounded by many teachers - parents, siblings, grandparents, family friends, other children, and extended family members - who provide a vast range of language experiences and information. In addition, media reinforce first language acquisition. As the child g rows older, teaching aids in various forms widens the circle of "teachers". The techniques also change as parents and others sing or read to the child, enriching the child's vocabulary.
Krashen and Terrell (1983) refer to first language acquisition as the Natural Way.
Historically, second language teaching methods have not reflected this natural process, but rather use Grammar-translation (the most common method of instruction), Audio-lingual, and the Situational methods. Teachers usually use one or a combination o f these three methods. Students are generally introduced to the language by one teacher who spends only a specified amount of time with the students each week. At the end of the class students may return to classrooms where they are taught in another language. In some cases, there is limited contact with other speakers of the language being learned. A recent trend in teaching methods is to try to simulate as natural an environment as possible. The Communicative Approach represents an attempt to simulate a situation for natural first language acquisition.
The sample units and suggested activities, which form the second half of this curriculum guide, may help the teacher structure learning situations that reflect the communicative approach.
Attaining fluency in a second language requires competence in discourse, linguistics and sociolinguistics. This implies learning the proper use of the language as dictated by the social protocol inherent within the language. It is a socialization to the culture of a particular language. Consider the following brief explanation of each of these areas:
This curriculum promotes active bilingualism rather than passive bilingualism. Passivity may occur in the early stages of second language learning when a student is beginning to learn the new sounds and vocabulary or in an environment t hat is not conducive to daily use of the Indian or Métis language. People are either active or passive in their ability to speak a second language. When a person is fluent in a language and speaks that language without error he or she is consider ed actively bilingual and "monitor-free". This person speaks spontaneously and although he or she may be aware of grammar, does not worry about grammar rules before speaking. While this person may not be consciously concerned with the linguistic analysis of the language, he or she is aware of the `body language' involved as part of discourse and interaction within a particular community. This is known as socio-linguistic awareness. Some socio-linguistic awareness and social protocol situations can be difficult to simulate in the classroom but students can be informed about appropriate responses and behaviour before attending cultural and community events. With assistance from community members other social events may be simulated or actually performed in the classroom. Vocabulary may be introduced and discussed beforehand.
A person who is passively bilingual has limited understanding and use the language. Communication will probably be a mixture of body language, facial expressions, actions and words. Generally, there has been limited contact with other speakers of th e language.
A teacher's plans will be guided by a number of considerations including:
Once an assessment has been completed and the interests and community needs have been determined, a review of the stages of second language acquisition may indicate the direction of a plan. The following outline of these stages, as explained by Step hen D. Krashen and Tracy D. Terrell (1983), is based on the "natural way" of acquiring a first language.
Stage 1: Comprehension
This stage is characterized by a period of silence or incubation. Students are not required to respond orally. Rather, they are given information that is relevant and interesting to them. This information is referred to as input. Eventually students will understand and feel comfortable enough to respond to commands and questions given through actions or in their first language. This is output, the result of listening and observing skills that the students acquire. In this natural way they retain and use the new sounds and vocabulary of the second language.
Stage 2: Early Production
As the students begin to master pronunciation, they also begin to build a key list of personal vocabulary. Their response may be a combination of words in their first language plus words or simple sentences in the second language, or the response may be action. Although the combination, word order, or choice of words may not be entirely correct, students are able to make themselves understood. They are recalling retained input. At this stage they will begin to recognize written words and associate them with concrete objects and actions.
Stage 3: Speech Emergence
The ultimate goal is for students to achieve discourse proficiency, sociolinguistic and linguistic competence. This level of achievement is reflected through longer responses, more complex discourse and the ability to converse with a variety of audiences in different situations. Students show interest in and are motivated to pursue independent study of the language. At this point students have developed listening, speaking, reading and writing skills. The degree of fluency is dependent on factors such as a positive learning environment, relevancy of the vocabulary introduced, community involvement, and encouragement from everyone.
The Learning Environment
This curriculum encourages teachers to utilize the input of students, parents, teacher-librarians and Elders in the language program. Students may help with planning and setting goals. Teamwork and communication among these groups establishes a sound basis for a positive environment, good rapport, and mutual respect. Inclusion of the community, students, parents and Elders ensures that language acquisition takes place in the social context of the community, generates a feeling of ownership and fosters a holistic learning environment.
In addition to the planning of the course, establishing the physical setting is of equal importance. The classroom should be organized with several areas where students have access to materials such as paints, storybooks, construction paper, and an audio station where students may listen to or record songs, conversations and stories. Although the appearance of these work stations will change over the year the well planned classroom setting will help pupils adjust to the daily routine and encourage independent learning and self-reliance.
Traditional Indian Teaching Methods
Many North American Indian societies had no writing system aside from petroglyphs and pictographs on animal hides. Yet people managed to impart language, life skills, attitudes, values, and customs to their descendants. In her paper in the book Teaching the Indian Child (p.163), Sandra A. Rietz (1988) explains oral literature in this way, "It teaches (by induction) what a people knows about itself and the universe, both through the story content and through structural device - the organizational and linguistic properties of the story." She also states that, "An oral literature, `language of the mind' (Frost, 1980), structures the collective memory of a people." Storytellers were given the responsibility of committing to memory the worldview of the particular group. This may be the reason oral literature is characterized by repetition of certain structures or phrases. For example, number sets such as four occur in Indian stories and the number three in Russia n stories. The numbers occur in ceremonies, too. Traditional Indian teaching through storytelling, legends or ordinary stories, can enhance contemporary educational methods, not only in the teaching of Indian languages, but also to preserve the encoded "cultural memory" within the stories. Today's cultures, European and Indian, are a reflection of this tradition. Even though European oral literature was considered by some as insignificant and of little value, the Indian perspective considers the tradition as the lifeline to culture. Reitz (1988) explains that the intention or purpose of storytelling was culturally "utilitarian" and was intended "to tell people how to behave, to bind people together in a common cultural community, and to teach and reinforce models which belong to the cultural cosmology." In other words, legends or ordinary stories and recollections of events served to transmit history and customs, information on tribal taboos, examples of rewards or punishment, and models of behaviour. Stories served as a form of social control, developing attitudes and interpersonal skills. Some stories had a moral. Storytellers did not explain the moral as that was considered insulting. Listeners reflected on the story and came to their own conclusions.
Another method was modelling or experiential learning where children watched how a certain task was done but were not pressured to do the task immediately afterwards. Since there were no written instructions, children had to remember the how, why, and when to do the tasks.
Name giving coincided with a person's social and personal growth. Relatives chose names that reflected traits they hoped a newborn child would possess. Then, as the child reached adolescence, an outstanding feat of bravery or the demonstration of leadership qualities often warranted a name change. The new name symbolized the person's qualities or the feat achieved. It was an honour to be chosen for a name-change. Receiving the name of a well-respected individual who had passed a way required serious thought. Emulating the individual whose name was inherited was foremost in the mind of the receiver but it was also a responsibility to uphold the person's reputation. People's names might be changed a number of times during a lifetime but always for good reasons.
These samples of traditional Indian teaching methods reflect a holistic approach to human development. In the process, the individual makes choices and decisions with the guidance of immediate and extended family members.
Incorporating legends, stories, recollections, and information about customs such as name giving not only helps teach the language but also serves to revive customs.
Teachers should provide students with opportunities to interact with peers and adults in a traditional fashion. Community celebrations or activities may be structured or attended. If the class is in an urban centre, the teacher may consider inviting male and female Elders to explain or to tell stories.
The Cree School Board's Curriculum Services at Chisasibi, Quebec identifies traditional activities in the document Cree Culture Scope and Sequence Guide Cree Programs Chisasibi . The document, which is written in English, suggests activities where Grades one, two and three students learn about the lifestyle and culture of the Cree people in that region. The activities are comprehensive and range from storytelling by Elders, male and female, to learning all about snowshoes, choosing a camp si te, selecting proper firewood, and building a fire. They also teach the students how to set snares and traps, and how to shoot a gun. Then students are shown how to look after the game for eating, and how to preserve meat and fish for later use. Cree is the language of instruction. Elders play an important role. They use stories to teach values and to explain customs (e.g., activities and feast when a little boy kills his first goose).
This is consistent with the communicative approach to language instruction and the philosophy and principles of core curricula.
The diagram following this section explains the cyclical progression of the Communicative Approach to Resource-based Learning to the Adaptive Dimension and back to the use of the language through communication. Each component enhances the environment by giving students opportunities to gain practical experience in speaking the Indian language being taught. The Communicative Approach can be described as an umbrella encompassing a number of teaching methods/approaches t hat encourage the use of a second language.
Resource-Based Learning, the next step in the process, is where resources are identified by the teacher, teacher-librarian, students, and others involved in the teacher's plans. The resources are not confined to printed materials but can include involvement of community people, attendance at local events, visiting historical sites in the vicinity, and generally utilizing appropriate and relevant materials and activities to give students an opportunity to use the Indian or Michif language.
The Adaptive Dimension provides teachers with a vehicle to accommodate individual needs of the students by adapting:
Teaching Strategies
Total Physical Response
Dr. James J. Asher (1988) researched a method now known as Total Physical Response (TPR). It is based on the natural way that children acquire language through listening and responding physically to requests, invitations, and commands from family members. Asher's method is based on the premises that understanding the spoken language should be developed far in advance of speaking, that comprehension can be learned through physical movement, that speech will emerge naturally, and that students should not be rushed into reading and writing before they have had ample listening and speaking experience. Students in a second or foreign language class begin by listening to commands, watching the teacher role-play, and by internalizing and responding to the vocabulary.
Organic Vocabulary, Reading and Writing
In her book Teacher, Sylvia Ashton-Warner (1963) describes how she introduced reading and writing English to Maori children in New Zealand using the Organic Reading and Writing method.
Ashton-Warner attempted to bridge the gap between the two cultures by having the children read and write using vocabulary that had emotional significance to them. She had the young children begin with single words written on cardboard. Each child took that word home and brought it back to school the next day. If the word held great significance for the student, he remembered it without difficulty. Gradually each child built a key vocabulary which formed the basis for reading and writing sentences and paragraphs.
A similar approach may be used with any second language class. The teacher may write what the child says about some activity or event, in or out of school, that is important to the child. Recorded regularly in the second language, by the teacher or older students, these "stories" may form a booklet to be used by the child as a personal reader or be left in the library as a useful resource for others to read. In teaching a second language it is important to use a wide variety of instructional approaches and learning situations.
The Language of Instruction
The communicative approach and the objectives support the idea that the language of instruction should, as much as possible, be the language being learned. That is, if the general language of the school is English and the language being learned is Dene, the second language classes would be conducted primarily in Dene. English would then be used as sparingly as possible.
Instructional Approaches
The document Instructional Approaches: A Framework for Professional Practice , Saskatchewan Education (1991), identifies five categories of instructional approaches, along with lists of more specific teaching strategies. These are meant to apply to all disciplines and the full range of in-school situations. Most of the strategies are consistent with the communicative approach for second language teaching. The strategies appear below, followed by a number of more specific methods or comments about the approach.
Generally speaking, direct instructional methods:
Indirect Instruction:
Generally speaking, indirect instructional methods:
Independent Study:
Generally speaking, independent study:
Experiential Learning:
Generally speaking, independent learning:
Interactive Instruction:
Generally speaking, interactive instruction:
Rather than using primarily one teaching approach, a variety of strategies, used during the course of the year as well as in each class period, will serve to both the teacher's and students' advantage.
| The Communicative Approach
The Communicative Approach can be described as an umbrella encompassing |
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The following guiding principles of student evaluation appear on page 1 in Student Evaluation: A Teacher Handbook, (Saskatchewan Education, 1991).
These guidelines are meant to assist the teacher to identify areas of the program that need change, to assess progress, to identify student needs, and to help the teacher plan future lessons. The teacher may choose alternate approaches to assessment.
Evaluation implies not only the testing of the students but also an assessment of the program.
Core curricula give students the opportunity to make some decisions about the curriculum and also gives them some of the responsibility for assessment.
Samples of assessment instruments, which are adapted for second language testing, and may be further adapted to suit individual circumstances, are in Appendix A. The placement checklist is designed for first language testing but may be adapted f or second language testing.
The Student Evaluation: A Teacher Handbook identifies ways a teacher may organize the assessment process. Suggestions include the following:
Depending on the technique used, records may be kept using one or more of the following:
Some activities may be observed and assessed on an ongoing basis:
Instruments for testing fluency and comprehension include:
A teacher may consider a number of variables when developing, revising or adapting instructional and evaluation strategies to suit the needs of specific students. The following are some questions to keep in mind.
Assessment and evaluation criteria and procedures should be discussed with the students.
Students should always be aware of the what, how, when and why of different assessment strategies. For example, students should know that today the teacher will observe their speaking skills. They should be assured not to be intimidated because it is a necessary part of evaluation, and the evaluation will be ongoing. The teacher may then use a checklist or make relevant notes as she goes from group to group listening to conversations.
Students and teacher may determine in a collaborative way the criteria and procedures of evaluation. This may be done for various instruments including teacher prepared tests and self or peer evaluation checklists. By being involved directly, t he students assume more control of and responsibility for their own progress.
There should be no surprises when it comes to evaluation.
The teacher may explain record-keeping and may encourage a periodic review of the student's portfolio through conferencing. The portfolio might contain pictures, projects, a cassette tape of the student speaking, copies of quizzes, work sheets, or anecdotal records. A student's weekly or monthly journal or "organic reader" may also be kept in the portfolio.
This sort of record-keeping gives teachers information related to content learned as well as the development of skills and attitudes. It will assist the teacher in making decisions about the program and in evaluating the students.
In large or multiple grade classes teachers may schedule themselves to observe only a small group of students in a given period and another group the next period.
Refer to Appendix A for additional evaluation material. Keep in mind that materials may be adapted for second language instruction and for use in specific situations. Also refer to other curriculum documents (e.g., Language Arts, Social Studies , Science) for additional ideas and information on evaluation.
This diagram shows the incorporation of the various Core Curriculum components in unit plans.
| Foundational Objectives Emerging, Developing, Extending, and Specialized Phases |
| Learning Objectives Emerging, Developing, Extending, and Specialized Phases |
