This portion of the curriculum guide is intended to be used in conjunction with other resources that explain and model instructional approaches and strategies. Some of the traditional and non-traditional instructional methods that may be used in Information Processing are described below and may be referred to in Instructional Approaches: A Framework for Professional Practice (Saskatchewan Education, 1991). The Saskatchewan Professional Development Unit (SPDU) and Saskatchewan Instructional Development and Research Unit (SIDRU) have produced a resource series on various instructional methods that complements the discussion of instructional practice described in this curriculum.
An emphasis in the Information Processing program should be placed on the process of learning as well as on the demonstration of content learning. This may involve the use of a variety of teaching approaches. Learning should be activity based, with opportunities for students to experience all stages of the information processing cycle and demonstrate efficiency in performing a variety of information processing tasks. Group work, the continuous assessment of group productivity, and self-development should be ongoing parts of the course. Providing instructional activities for students to work independently and as a team will assist students to develop the skills and attitudes expected in real-life business situations.
The use of project work, case studies, simulations, field trips, and links with the business community are essential. Students need access to electronic and manual resources including libraries and community organizations.
One of the most important tasks of the teacher is to match the learning styles of the students to the instructional strategies with which the teacher feels most comfortable. It is strongly advised that the teacher use a variety of instructional strategies in order to meet both the objectives of a unit and students' individual needs and strengths. It is also important that the methods chosen work toward the achievement of the learning objective. For example, if the purpose of the unit is to solve problems, then the instructional approaches will involve students in applying knowledge, processes, and skills needed to be effective problem solvers. However, if the purpose of a lesson is to build touch keyboarding skills, the instructional approaches should enable students to build that skill as well as adapt to students' individual needs.
Regardless of the teaching methods used, the teacher should be focusing on student learning and development. In whole-group, small-group, teacher-directed, and other instruction situations, the teacher will need to be actively involved.
Instructional Strategies are grouped into five clusters: Direct, Indirect, Interactive, Experiential, and Independent Study. Instructional methods in each strategy that may be most relevant to Information Processing are described in the following sections:
| Direct Instruction | Indirect Instruction | Experiential Learning | Independent Study | Interactive Instruction |
The advance organizer may be used to connect past learnings and experiences to the teachings in the new lesson(s). The information processing cycle provides the perfect organizer for students as they input, process, and output information throughout the course. A wall chart illustrating the information processing cycle could be made available to students at all times. The information processing activities in which students are engaged should be acknowledged as having their place within the chart. The Advance Organizer may be used in a culminating sense to anchor the new learning to the student's existing cognitive structures. A way to accomplish this is to refer to the information processing cycle noting the knowledge and processes that have taken place by the end of the unit.
As a method to communicate facts and knowledge to the whole class, the lecture should be no longer than 10 minutes in length and should be followed by questions or an activity. It is preferable to accompany a lecture with visual aids, demonstrations, listening guides, and discussion in order to involve students actively. Lecture may be used, for example, when describing the information processing cycle for the first time. Student viewing of an overhead or wall chart illustrating the cycle may accompany the lecture. The teacher should encourage interaction among students.
Questioning is employed to guide learning. The purpose of questioning is to bring out or draw out a response from students that can help them bring forth their own ideas. Active questioning can assist students in accessing and connecting previous knowledge and in promoting critical and creative thinking. It can alert the teacher to students' needs and understandings, reinforce self-esteem, and can assist with developing a positive climate in the classroom. The teacher may develop a checklist to guide the questioning procedure.
Didactic questions can be used to diagnose recall and comprehension effectively and to draw on prior learning experiences. For example, "what", "where", "when", and "how" questions could be used to review the decision-making or problem-solving processes necessary for efficient information processing. The questioning in the classroom can be extended to include the addition of "why" and "what if" questions to promote further problem-solving and decision-making processes.
Demonstrations and modeling may be used often in Information Processing. For example, correct keyboarding techniques or the use of functions within a software package may be demonstrated when the concepts are first introduced. Students may apply the learning provided by the demonstration through modelling. A demonstration may be supplemented with opportunities for students to discuss and to reflect upon the demonstration, clarifying the concepts and/or procedures illustrated. Modelling and discussion are ways to involve students in learning actively.
Practice and drill, as an instructional method, is used to provide students with enough practice to perform a skill or process information automatically. Practice and drill can facilitate touch keyboarding and the efficient use of the keyboard for computer software applications, especially in the beginning learning stages. The amount of time devoted to using practice and drill as an instructional method is not as great as in the past with typewriting courses. It is recognized that the continual use of touch keyboarding skills facilitates keyboarding skill development and keyboarding rates.
Upon entering the Information Processing course, students' skills should be assessed and evaluated. From the entry levels, provisions should be made to increase each student's skills and abilities. The students should feel a sense of accomplishment using practice and drill and should incorporate the skills they learn into other instructional methods to increase overall productivity. The objectives of the lesson/unit and the students' learning styles should be taken into consideration.
Cloze activities are inference builders. Cloze is a psychological term which applies to the human tendency to complete (bring to closure) a familiar but not-quite-finished pattern.
Cloze is most effective when completed as a collaborative small group task. An important section of text from reference material or teacher-prepared handouts is prepared with key words systematically omitted. Students should not have read the passage previously. Explain to the students that there may be several appropriate terms to "fill in" the blanks. Students do not use reference materials, but they do work in groups (4 - 6) sharing and discussing possible solutions. The teacher monitors the groups, and after a reasonable amount of time, discusses the assignment with the whole class or with each individual group. Observations made during the activity may assist in planning for future instruction and in resource selection.
Students are encouraged to read the material and think about what it means critically and analytically. The procedure may be used as a summary exercise for review or as an outline or guide to direct students' learning.
Computer and applications software should always be used as a tool in the teaching and learning process. Tutorials may be used to assist in the process. Tutorials or computer-assisted learning may be utilized when learning keyboarding and computer applications. Keyboarding programs may assist with drill, diagnostic assessments, and speed-building exercises. Software tutorials may give students their first exposure to a new applications package. Tutorials and computer-assisted learning should be used as a resource and combined with other instructional methods.
Guides for reading, listening, and viewing refer to providing leading questions, diagrams, or statements to assist students in focusing on the important ideas within text, lecture, media, or other presentations. A follow-up discussion may assist in summarizing the activity.
Inquiry is not just a matter of asking questions but is a process of conducting a thorough investigation. The inquiry process can be practised and learned in a systematic way. If students have had limited experience with inquiry, the teacher may wish to ease students into its use. The purpose of inquiry is to experience the process rather than to memorize the process or product.
The teacher has an option of allowing the students to experience guided or unguided inquiry. In guided inquiry the teacher asks the question but does not answer the question. In several places throughout the curriculum guide, questions that may be asked are included. The questions could be used for guided inquiry. Unguided, inductive inquiry sees the teacher again asking but not answering questions, prompting students, structuring materials and simulations, and in general organizing the learning. The teacher's role becomes minimized as the student takes more responsibility for examining problems, opportunities and ideas for processing information. The student may select the direction for learning in the unguided method.
Indirect instruction is often a slower way of exposing students to the material than direct instruction but students often achieve a better understanding of the material and ideas under investigation. Learning in Information Processing is process oriented, resulting in the production of an acceptable document or communication. Students need to experience rather than hear about information processing.
Case studies can be used throughout Information Processing. Case studies are assigned scenarios based on real-life situations that students could analyze, record, and to which they may process a response. Many resource materials use case studies as examples to illustrate how activity in business can take place or has taken place. By examining case studies, students may identify the appropriate information that must be processed to fulfil a need. The teacher can accumulate actual case study situations from the local community for discussion and examination. The teacher may use these resources to suit the needs of the classroom. Students may discuss results in small and large groups. The use of case studies as an instructional method can assist students to explore their potential as information processors in future endeavours.
A lecture may be followed by a reflective discussion. The reflective discussion involves students individually or as a group thinking more deeply about a topic through discussion, and coming to some conclusions. The conclusions may be similar to those suggested under questioning.
There are opportunities within Information Processing for students to find and use community resources. Observations and experience in the field provide valuable feedback to the students on how the knowledge, skills, processes and attitudes learned in the classroom can be applied to real-life situations. All field visits should be prearranged and the purpose of the visit made clear to the students. The valuable contribution of the community could be acknowledged by students processing and distributing follow-up or thank you letters.
Because field observation and interaction with the community may be used often in Business Education classes, the teacher may make arrangements with various organizations to accommodate students throughout the school year. The purpose of assignments should be clearly explained to all parties involved so that the intent of the exercises is clear.
Imaging can be used as a problem-solving tool to test ideas before acting upon them. It can help broaden students' conceptual understanding of Information Processing. Imaging provides a focus and an opportunity for open-minded exploration of the business world. The process of visualizing real-life business situations can nurture students' abilities to adapt to the ever- changing nature of the business world.
The simulation may be used at the end of a unit or to bond together several areas within Information Processing. The simulation may be utilized in many ways.
The students will be able to see:
Assigned questions may be used to cover basic facts and knowledge. The use of a mixture of convergent (single correct answers) and divergent (open-ended answers) is desirable. Assigned questions allow the teacher to assist students at their work stations or desks. Assigned questions should be combined with another instructional method or strategy.
Writing is an instructional method that allows students to express their information, concerns, or ideas independently.
Composition. Composition at the keyboard is a major component of the communications strand within Information Processing. The purpose of composition is to improve communication skills within the business setting. Students should be involved in processing research information and using computer applications in their composition work. Students may compose questions, letters, memoranda, and reports throughout Information Processing. After the composition, students are asked to look for grammar, punctuation, spelling, and other errors within the composed writing. Using writing and composition extends the communication skills important to the business world.
Journal Writing. A journal is a collection of feelings, reactions, notes, observations, questions, or other pieces of information that may be used for future reference or that may be kept as a record of thoughts and experiences. The journal should not be evaluated for content and may or may not be shared with others.
The journal may be used to help students clarify under what circumstances and/or within which software applications they perform their most efficient problem solving. Another application may involve students individually preparing a journal writing activity with a specific focus and discussing it with a partner before a large group discussion.
A learning contract provides a method of individualizing instruction and developing student responsibility. As a learning contract permits individual pacing, it may be used effectively in Information Processing for planning and conducting a project. Students may function at the predetermined level(s) or time frames set up in the contract.
Students may be required to read instruction booklets or follow directions when dealing with various software applications or simulations.
| Role Playing | Interviews | Brainstorming | Concept Mapping and Concept Webbing | Concept Formation | Concept Attainment | Cooperative Learning |
Role playing involves participants and observers in a real problem situation. The process allows students to gain insight into their own values, attitudes and perceptions; to develop problem- solving skills and attitudes; and to explore subject matter in another way. The method de-emphasizes the traditional role of the teacher and encourages the learning and listening of the students.
In preparation for role playing, the problem must be clearly defined and the roles must be assigned. Following the enactment, discussion and evaluation take place. Role playing in Information Processing allows students to act upon, experience, and gain further insight into problem-solving situations and the problem-solving processes that are important components of the information processing process. For example, scenarios involving miscommunicated telephone conversations and their affects on company productivity could be role played.
| Role Playing | Interviews | Brainstorming | Concept Mapping and Concept Webbing | Concept Formation | Concept Attainment | Cooperative Learning |
The purpose of instructional methods involving interviews would be to explore and eventually to have students form hypotheses. Several times throughout the curriculum, it is suggested that students go out into the community to find information. This is one of the main goals of Business Education; however, this activity requires careful planning.
Teachers may guide students in procedures, questions, and information to be gleaned from the situation. Interview questions should be approved by the teacher. The community participants should be asked if they are willing to participate before the students go out, and they should be thanked for their assistance upon the students' return. A sample of questions that may be asked during the interviewing process may be given to the community member(s). When students receive the information, related hypotheses and/or relevance of the information to the curriculum should be noted. Students may prepare a display, give a class presentation, or compose a report to summarize the data gathered.
Interviewing may be used often throughout the course. It is recommended that teachers make arrangements with community organizations to accommodate this activity throughout the school year.
| Role Playing | Interviews | Brainstorming | Concept Mapping and Concept Webbing | Concept Formation | Concept Attainment | Cooperative Learning |
Brainstorming is defined as an interactive method used with large or small groups to generate ideas or to identify possible solutions to problems. Although brainstorming is most often used in groups, it can be used by a single individual.
The teacher may act as a facilitator for the activity. A recorder will list ideas as accurately as possible. All students are encouraged to express ideas. No judgment of ideas is to take place. After the activity is completed, linkages of ideas may take place.
| Role Playing | Interviews | Brainstorming | Concept Mapping and Concept Webbing | Concept Formation | Concept Attainment | Cooperative Learning |
Concept webbing may begin with a concept presented in the middle of a page. From that concept, a group of students may brainstorm all related concepts that they feel are relevant or that flow from that initial concept. Concepts will multiply as more and more of them are generated and presented on paper. Each individual within the group may build upon the concepts of others.
Concept mapping is designed to show meaningful relationships between concepts. The difference between concept mapping and concept webbing is that "mapping" is hierarchical. Webbing is more free flowing and does not need to be hierarchical. Mapping can make clear to students the key ideas on which to focus. It can show new relationships between concepts and can "stretch" the student's mind to see things in a new perspective.
| Role Playing | Interviews | Brainstorming | Concept Mapping and Concept Webbing | Concept Formation | Concept Attainment | Cooperative Learning |
What is a concept? A concept may be concrete (a business letter), abstract (productivity), or graphic (information processing cycle).
Concept formation involves the recognition that some objects or events belong together while others do not. Students are provided with data about a particular concept and are encouraged to classify or group the data. Once the objects have been grouped according to a particular categorization scheme, the grouping is given a label. This type of strategy could be used when identifying different terminology of computer software applications. Teachers may ask students to identify and list a number of items found in a setting, group the items that belong together using common characteristics, label the groupings, and rearrange and relabel items into subgroups, if students feel that is possible. The teacher is the initiator of the activity and guides students as they move cooperatively through the task.
| Role Playing | Interviews | Brainstorming | Concept Mapping and Concept Webbing | Concept Formation | Concept Attainment | Cooperative Learning |
Concept attainment focuses on learning or understanding what characteristics may be useful for distinguishing between members and nonmembers of a grouping or class. Concept formation has already taken place. The focus is on the categorization of meaningful groups.
The process of attaining concepts deductively may include a number of steps:
The inductive approach promotes higher-order thinking skills and may be used as follows:
If the concept is to be retained, practice must take place. A review of the definition of the concept is necessary at the end of the lesson. Also, a connection to learning that took place in the past and will take place in the future should be provided by the teacher.
| Role Playing | Interviews | Brainstorming | Concept Mapping and Concept Webbing | Concept Formation | Concept Attainment | Cooperative Learning |
Cooperative learning is mentioned often within this curriculum. Group work may not have been used often in the Business Education classroom; however, to employ the C.E.L.s of Critical and Creative Thinking, Communication, Personal and Social Values and Skills, this instructional method will be very useful.
Large Group. Teacher and students may meet in a large-group setting regarding issues to be considered. Students express their perspectives and the teacher maintains the role of official. Everyone should speak. The teacher may ask one or two prepared questions and the students may respond by writing in a journal. Another method for completing a large group meeting may be to summarize information on the blackboard or overhead projector. Students may record the information.
Small Group. Small groups run most efficiently with three to five people. The teacher should "shape the scene" before students move into groups. A recorder and reporter may be appointed in each group. Students may be asked to focus on asking questions, expressing feelings, expressing support or non-support, or brainstorming to solve a problem. A group checklist or a cooperative worksheet may be created. Each person in the group should be encouraged to respond. Students then report back to a large group or to the teacher. When all responses are in, the teacher and students may discuss the implications of the ideas expressed.
Prior to a group session, students may submit names of students they wish to work with for a specified period of time. It is recommended that the teacher try to match individuals (put at least one person requested by an individual into each group). Groups may be rotated often.
If students are making decisions such as analyzing a case study, they should be accountable for their decisions. They may follow a decision-making or problem-solving model such as: identify the problem; list possible solutions; list consequences of suggested solutions; and, select the best solution.
They may use a student worksheet where they list: significant facts recalled from the case; criteria used to judge the case; and, the decision and reasons behind the decision.
For example, students may be put in groups to read an article, discuss the elements and compare similarities. The group may be asked to give information (facts) or to give opinions (personal values, feelings).
Pairs. Each pair may be given a sheet of paper to record ideas. One person must be designated recorder. The teacher gives directions and circulates and intervenes to clarify the task to the students, prompts additional responses, or acts as a resource person. Students may submit their responses in print, in written form, or by drawing. When the teacher sees they have run out of ideas, each pair may give one example from its list to be shared with the class. A pair may respond several times. This would lead to a large group discussion. A pair may also be asked to present its findings or conclusion to the class. Cooperative learning may be used in many classroom situations. The cooperative learning structure must meet the needs of the learners. Is the purpose of the group strictly cooperative or will it have a competitive or individualistic element to it?
The students may be divided into groups for an entire unit. The groups should be formed heterogeneously with creative thinkers and prosaic thinkers, males and females, experienced and inexperienced users of the software, and those with varying cultural backgrounds. To be aware of the social skills and abilities that can be attained or developed through group work, group members should focus on one cooperative skill or ability at a time as indicated by the teacher. Another method may be to assign roles for the students until interpersonal awareness becomes part of their day-to-day routine. These social skills or roles may include: active listening; paraphrasing; perception checking; encouraging participation of all members; and, using non-judgmental description.
The heterogeneous groups may remain the same or they may change (for example midway through a unit). A change would allow different students to work together, to get to know each other, and to learn from each other.
Student assessment, student self-assessment and student group-assessment will take place throughout the units.
The positive outcomes of the group process should be the achievement of desirable social skills and abilities as well as the increased content and process achievement of all group members. A summarizing activity may be done as a group disbands to make the students aware of what they have accomplished together. When students first experience cooperative learning groups, these questions may draw attention to the roles individuals assume within their groups; for example, a leader, a communicator, a person who resolves conflict, or a negotiator. Also, every student should have a chance to lead, record, report, encourage, or be involved at some time in the various roles that are identified for the group members. Over a longer period of time, students will become aware of those roles assumed by individuals in social situations.