Teaching Kindergarten

Using a Variety of Instructional Approaches

One of the ways the Kindergarten teacher can help children achieve the program goals and specific objectives, such as developing confidence in themselves and collaborating with others to solve problems, is by becoming involved in and extending children's play.

Play is the first and most important mode of instruction in Kindergarten. By providing an environment in which children are free to play with each other and with a wide range of carefully selected materials, teachers facilitate children's development and learning. The amount of learning is affected by the nature of the materials provided and by the quality of the teacher's involvement in the play activity. Besides providing suitable materials and appropriate conditions for play, the teacher should help children structure and extend their play.

In order to be sure the teacher is facilitating development rather than taking initiative away from the children and imposing adult ideas, the teacher needs to begin by observing the children at play. After observing, the teacher adjusts the space available for various play activities, judges the amount of time needed for play to develop, makes decisions about materials, and helps students to set the rules that are needed. Having observed the children, the teacher also decides when joining in the children's play will help extend and develop the play, and when it is appropriate to initiate a new idea or to provide new materials.

Joining in children's play is successful when the teacher can share in it without directing or dominating. There may, for instance, be a child who has not yet started to play with other children. One day the teacher sees the child in the housekeeping area "preparing tea". The teacher comes to the door, knocks, and asks to come in and have a cup of tea. The teacher sits at the table and talks about the cake being served, etc. By role playing, the teacher becomes part of the play, adds ideas, introduces vocabulary and helps the child feel comfortable. Soon other children come and the teacher is able to withdraw without disrupting the play. A teacher's participation in play helps children to know that play is viewed by the teacher as an important activity.

Taking initiative is another way of extending children's play. Taking initiative means showing children a new process, skill or idea. The teacher, observing a play situation, may feel that the children have run into a problem they cannot solve or are playing in a repetitive way. For instance, children might be trying to construct a bridge with unit blocks. The walls supporting the bridge may not be strong enough because the children are simply piling one block on top of another. The teacher notices that the structure keeps falling and the children are getting frustrated. Therefore, the teacher suggests that the children go outside and look at the way bricks have been put together to make the brick wall. The teacher also shows them a picture of a bridge and helps them think about how a bridge is constructed. Children who had been ready to give up in frustration are now deeply engrossed in building and developing their plans. Sometimes children do not pick up on a suggestion or a piece of information immediately, but later on they can be observed making use of it.

There are other appropriate modes of instruction suitable for facilitating Kindergarten children's development and learning. Children enjoy and benefit from short group sessions during which they learn to listen to each other and the teacher, sing together, listen to stories, and develop a sense of time by remembering what they have done and planning ahead. Learning centres are sometimes designed to focus children's attention on a concept, process or skill and provide opportunity for self-initiated investigation and practice. Children benefit from well-planned field trips and learn much from subsequent guided discussion. The most preferred approaches are those that build on the children's interests and self-initiated activities.

The following, adapted from the "Instruction" section of English Language Arts: A Curriculum Guide for the Elementary Level, Saskatchewan Education, 1992, pages 85 to 143, describes a few examples of instructional experiences that are suitable for Kindergarten.

Brainstorming

This large or small group activity encourages children to focus on a topic and contribute to the free flow of ideas. The teacher may begin by posing a question or a problem, or by introducing a topic. Students then express possible answers, relevant words and ideas. Contributions are accepted without criticism or judgement. Initially, some students may be reluctant to speak out in a group setting, but brainstorming is an open sharing activity which encourages all children to participate. By expressing ideas and listening to what others say, students adjust their previous knowledge or understanding, accommodate new information and increase their levels of awareness.

Teachers should emphasize active listening during these sessions. Students should be encouraged to listen carefully and politely to what their classmates contribute, tell the speakers or the teacher when they cannot hear others clearly and think of different suggestions or responses to share.

Purposes

• to focus students' attention on a particular topic
• to generate a quantity of ideas
• to teach acceptance and respect for individual differences
• to encourage learners to take risks in sharing their ideas and opinions
• to demonstrate to students that their knowledge and their language abilities are valued and accepted
• to introduce the practice of idea collection prior to beginning tasks such as writing or solving problems
• to provide an opportunity for students to share ideas and expand their existing knowledge by building on each other's contributions

• Introduce the topic or pose a question.
• Ask students to take turns sharing ideas and possible answers.
• Encourage all students to participate.
• Print the main words or phrases of students' contributions on a chalkboard or chart while students observe.
• Teacher ideas may be added.
• Acknowledge and praise students for their contributions.

• Observe students' ability to focus on a topic or task in a group situation.
• Note students' participation in the oral expression of ideas.
• Monitor listening behaviours. (Do students take turns speaking? Do they ask for clarifications?)
• Record students' oral language strengths, weaknesses and development in their files or portfolios periodically.

• Establish a warm, supportive environment.
• Emphasize that a quantity of ideas is the goal.
• Discourage evaluative or critical comments from peers.
• Encourage and provide opportunity for all students to participate.
• Emphasize initially the importance of listening to expressed ideas. Model printing and recording of the ideas, then read each contribution to the group.

Categorizing

Categorizing involves grouping objects or ideas according to criteria that describe common features or the relationships among all members of that group. This procedure enables students to see patterns and connections; it develops students' abilities to manage or organize information.

Purposes

• to provide an opportunity to share existing knowledge and understanding
• to extend students' thinking and understanding by requiring them to organize ideas and incorporate new ones
• to encourage students to practice acceptance and understanding of diverse ideas and viewpoints
• to demonstrate that information can be grouped or classified in more than one way

• Focus on concrete objects such as toys or materials readily available in the classroom during introductory categorization procedures.
• Provide the criteria by which objects are to be grouped such as size, colour, shape or use during the initial stages. Students will later develop their own classification guidelines.
• Encourage students to explain their reasons for placing items in particular categories.
• Ensure that all students see and understand the relationships.
• Encourage students to question each other's categorizations.
• Provide opportunities for students to categorize their objects according to criteria of their choosing.
• Demonstrate this strategy with the whole class, then progress to small group and individual categorizing activities.
• Move students from categorizing concrete objects to categorizing pictures.

• Monitor students' ability to understand relationships among items.
• Observe students' ability to categorize items using more than one criteria or category.
• Note students' ability to categorize items independently.

• Encourage comments and discussions about similarities and differences among classifications and category components.
• Provide a positive environment in which students can take risks in assigning items to categories.
• Encourage participation by all students.

Choral Speaking

In this activity, students are involved in the oral interpretation of literature. Choral speaking refers to experiences in which students recite passages from memory. This activity allows students to deepen their understanding and enjoyment of literature by experimenting with elements of voice (tempo, volume, pitch, stress and juncture), movement and gestures within a supportive environment.

Students are encouraged to interpret poems and stories by exploring the elements of voice and movement. With the support of additional voices, all students experience success.

Purposes

• to increase enjoyment and understanding of literature
• to use oral interpretation as one avenue to understanding literature
• to develop awareness of poetic elements such as rhythm and rhyme
• to understand how language can be used to evoke mental images and communicate messages
• to provide a supportive environment for experimenting with variations in elements of voice and movement

• Select or compose a class poem or story considering:
  - students' interests and preferences
  - strong rhythmic and/or rhyming patterns
  - appropriateness of language structures and vocabulary.
• Read the selection to students twice using a clear but relatively unexpressive voice. (The passage should be accessible to all students.)
• Have students "read" the selection together from an experience chart.
• Select as a class, appropriate arrangements or patterns for an oral interpretation. Suggested patterns include:
  - unison (all "read" together)
  - refrain (teacher reads verses, students recite a repetitive refrain)
  - antiphonal (students are in groups with each group responsible for a certain part of the poem).
• Invite students to suggest ways they could use their voices to make the selection more interesting. "Should we read quickly or slowly?" (tempo), "Where should it be louder?, Softer?" (stress and volume), "Do we need high or low voices?" (pitch), "Where should we pause?" (juncture)
• Determine as a class, what gestures or actions could be added to convey meaning.
• Experiment with the passage, adding two or three elements at a time in repeated readings or recitations.
• Invite students to comment on the effects they have achieved.
• Determine whether to polish selections for performance.

Assessment

• Observe students' involvement.
• Note students' willingness to offer suggestions and to accept and consider the suggestions of others.
• Record observations periodically in students' oral language development files.
• Consider audio or videotaping the sessions.

Conferences

Conferences provide opportunities for students and teachers to discuss a drawing, experience or project, and to plan future learning experiences. As teachers "conference" with individual students or small groups, other class members continue with their activities.

Teachers learn a great deal about students and their learning in conferences. As students discuss their successes and difficulties, teachers can guide students to resources relevant to their interests and needs, or to more challenging activities.

Purposes

• to provide opportunities for students and teachers to work on a one-to-one basis
• to give students opportunities to talk about their tasks, their attempts and resulting successes or concerns
• to assist students with decisions through the discussion of possibilities and alternatives
• to gradually develop students' abilities to assess their own efforts constructively
• to assess students' progress

• Converse with students while they work, posing questions that encourage them to talk about their tasks.
• Help students to benefit from "talking through" activities with teachers.

• Keep a conference log to record the date of the conference and the student's comments, concerns and understandings about specific learning activities.
• Monitor growth of quantity and quality of student-initiated questions and comments.
• Record conferences on audiocassettes to assist in analyzing an individual student's growth and the effectiveness of the conference.

• Provide a friendly, relaxed environment.
• Conference with a child as she/he writes, paints or builds.
• Focus on one or two topics per conference.
• Begin and end each conference with positive, encouraging remarks.

Cooperative Learning

Cooperative learning involves students working together to complete a task or project. Pairs usually work best in Kindergarten. The task is structured in such a way that involvement of each member contributes to completion of the task. Success is based on the performance of the pair rather than on the performance of each individual.

Cooperative learning stresses interdependence and promotes cooperation rather than competition. Establishing and maintaining cooperative group norms develops the concept of a community of learners.

Purposes

• to increase students' respect for, and understanding of, each other's unique abilities, interests and needs
• to promote peer cooperation
• to increase student self-esteem
• to encourage students to take responsibility for their learning
• to provide opportunities for students to clarify and refine personal feelings, thoughts and understandings through sharing and discussion

Although there are many different methods of structuring cooperative learning, common guidelines include:

• Pair students heterogeneously. The students should be of varying abilities and cultural and linguistic backgrounds.
• Structure the task in such a way that the involvement of each member is necessary to complete the task. Each student is responsible for some part of the task. Individuals must be aware of their responsibilities and must be accountable to their partners and for their own learning.
• Monitor the group dynamics and intervene when necessary. The teacher's role includes clarifying task directions, modelling desired collaborative behaviours and observing students' participation.
• Provide students with the opportunity to reflect individually and as a pair on what they have accomplished.
• Encourage students to evaluate the process as well as the final product. They should identify their cooperative skills which make working together a positive experience and those skills which need to be developed.

• Focus evaluation on achievement and the acquisition of cooperative behaviours. Pairs should evaluate their progress; members should evaluate themselves.
• Use anecdotal comments and/or a checklist or rating scale to record teachers' and students' observations of cooperative behaviours and progress. (See Checklist of Rating Scale.)

"A Picture of Me" by Sean

Discussions

A discussion is an oral exploration of a topic, object, concept or experience. All learners need frequent opportunities to generate and share their questions and ideas in small and whole class settings. Teachers who encourage and accept students' questions and comments without judgment and clarify understandings by paraphrasing difficult terms stimulate the exchange of ideas.

Purposes

• to help students make sense of the world
• to stimulate thought, wonder, explanation, reflection and recall
• to provide opportunities for students to clarify and expand their ideas and those of others
• to promote positive group interaction and conversation
• to demonstrate questioning techniques

Open-ended Discussions

• Begin with a sincere question (to which there is no one correct or concise answer) posed by teacher or student.
• Ask all listeners to consider the question.
• Incorporate pauses after students' responses to encourage extended or different responses.
• Clarify students' responses when necessary.
• Establish student-student dialogues during the discussion whenever possible.
• Respect students' questions and their responses.
• Model the role of sensitive listener, collaborator, mediator, prompter, learning partner and questioner.

Guided Discussions

• Guided discussions begin with teacher-posed questions that promote the exploration of a particular theme, topic or issue.
• Through discussion, students should achieve a deeper understanding of the topic.
• After some time is spent on teacher-directed questioning, students should be encouraged to facilitate discussions by continuing to formulate and pose questions appropriate to the topic of study.

• Observe students' participation and conduct in large and small group discussions.
• Note which students rarely or never ask questions.
• Note the settings, topics, concepts or objects which stimulate the most discussion.

Illustrating Stories

By illustrating particular events or sections of a story students can improve their comprehension and interpretation of the selection. Students employ personal understandings and responses when they visually depict story characters, settings, events and objects.

Purposes

• to develop students' imaginations
• to develop students' ability to interpret and visualize aural and printed information
• to develop students' understanding that illustrations can clarify and extend the text and assist story comprehension
• to increase students' awareness of various illustrating media and techniques

• Introduce this activity by using picture books.
• Choose a story with characters, events and settings that are interesting and relevant to students.
• Establish a purpose for listening by asking students to imagine or visualize the story as it is read aloud.
• Encourage students to imagine how things look, sound, feel, smell and taste.
• Do not share the book illustrations with students.
• Stop reading occasionally to review students' comprehension of story events or ask students to tell you what they saw during certain story parts or events.
• Model such descriptions and details by closing your eyes and sharing what you saw as you read.
• Expect that following discussion, students could:
  - illustrate favourite story events or characters
  - design a cover for the book
  - individually or in pairs illustrate particular sections of the text.
• Ask students to compare their illustrations with those of the book illustrator and with the illustrations of peers, commenting on what details they wanted to include, why they chose certain colours, and what storybook or life experiences they are reminded of by the pictures.

• Review students' illustrations periodically to determine growth in the kinds and amount of details illustrated.
• Observe the level of enthusiasm for illustrating selections.
• Note which selections or activities result in the most enthusiastic efforts.

• Encourage and value individual interpretations and illustrations.
• Emphasize that book illustrations represent the illustrator's interpretations and bias.
• Frequently discuss illustrations, the artists' techniques and the details provided in pictures.
• Encourage students to discuss images evoked by literary selections they hear--not all selections should be followed by an illustrating activity.

Journal Writing

A journal contains students' thoughts, feelings and reflections on various topics or experiences. Journal writing is rarely done to communicate with others. It is used to explore ideas and to communicate with oneself. Journal writing is often referred to as personal or free writing. This activity is appropriate for writers at all levels of development.

Purposes

• to use "writing" to explore ideas and record observations, experiences and understanding
• to encourage students to take risks in manipulating language and in structuring meaning
• to provide opportunities for students to reflect upon their growth and development as "writers"

• Ask students to construct their own journal booklets during playtime.
• Model journal writing for students, demonstrating the process of reflection, idea exploration and writing.
• Date journal entries or make a date stamp available for the students to date their own.
• Expect that the entries of emerging writers may contain more drawing than text.
• Encourage students to discuss specific journal entries during informal conferences.

• Review journal entries with students to identify their interests and concerns, their "writing" abilities, and the skills and knowledge needed for further growth and achievement.

• Create a classroom environment that stimulates thought and wonder, and provides students with writing ideas and topics.
• Respond to, and assist students with, the entries they wish to share.
• Understand that prior to "writing", students often need time to discuss ideas with peers, to draw or to contemplate.

Letter Writing

Letter writing introduces students to the use of writing to communicate to others. Young students excel in the informal use of oral language. Letter writing encourages students to use conversational language in written communication.

Purposes

• to encourage students to communicate with others in writing
• to provide opportunities for students to apply their understanding of oral language to the process of writing
• to develop students' awareness of writing for varied audiences and purposes
• to acquaint students with the basic format of friendly or informal letters

• Introduce letter writing as a collaborative writing activity.
• Decide the purpose for the letter and the recipient with students.
• Suggest that letters may be written to parents/caregivers, other classes, principals or teachers, classmates who are ill or have moved away, school caretakers, and community groups or services.
• Brainstorm and record ideas for letter contents.
• Structure brainstormed ideas into letter format, repeating the sentences as they are written using an overhead transparency, chalkboard or chart paper.
• Read the completed letter together with students and make any necessary revisions.
• Copy the drafted letter onto letter-size or experience chart paper.
• Ask the entire class to sign the letter.
• Mail or deliver the letter to the recipient. This may be an opportunity to go on a walking tour of the community to find a mailbox or visit a post office.
• Keep a copy of the letter in a class diary, scrapbook or correspondence file.
• Provide opportunities for individual letter "writing" at the writing centre. Have available odd envelopes, inexpensive stickers (for stamps) and suitable paper.
• Have personal mailboxes available in the classroom so that students can correspond with one another. These could be student or teacher-made from shoe boxes, milk cartons, etc.

• Observe students' enthusiasm to communicate to others in "writing".
• Note students' participation in collaborative writing tasks.
• Monitor individual efforts to compose messages and letters to others.

• Help students understand that letters represent meaningful communication with a genuine audience.
• Encourage emerging writers to combine drawings and print in their letters.
• Encourage students to share experiences, thoughts, comments and questions with their audience.

Making Books and Charts

Collaborative books and charts record students' ideas, stories and reports about characters, events and experiences. Their ideas may come from stories read in class, life experiences or topics of study. The language in the printed text and any illustrations are contributed by the students. The sizes and formats of charts and books may include big books, wall charts, scrapbooks and individual booklets.

Purposes

• to introduce students to composing and authorship in a group setting
• to increase students' understanding of the process approach to writing
• to develop awareness of the conventions of written language
• to create reading resources that are interesting and relevant to students
• to demonstrate to students that their language and ideas are worthy of preservation and sharing in print form

• Choose a topic and title that reflect a shared class interest or experience.
• Have students brainstorm ideas or the storyline to be included.
• Model the composing process by organizing ideas using a simple outline or a story map.
• Compose the sentences, lines or verses of the printed text collaboratively.
• Record students' ideas with minimal editing as they observe the recording process.
• Read the completed text and make any necessary revisions collaboratively.
• Separate pages or sections of the text could be illustrated by pairs or individuals.
• Share completed works with other classes, display and then add them to the classroom library collection.

• Note students' enthusiasm and participation in the collaborative writing activity.
• Note students' willingness and ability to "read" class-composed resources.

• The class can make books and charts on various topics, using different formats.
• Initially, it will be necessary for teachers to record students' ideas. As writing abilities develop, students may record the ideas contributed by peers and make individual books.
• Completed works may be shared with other classes, displayed, and then added to the classroom library collection.

Puppetry

Puppetry provides opportunities for students to create and enact a variety of characters, roles and events. Puppets evoke imaginative and creative ideas and responses. The use of puppets can encourage and support student participation in many language activities. Students who are reluctant to speak in group settings may participate in oral activities with increased confidence with the aid of props such as puppets. Puppets, which can be purchased or hand-crafted, can be used spontaneously in the classroom for a variety of purposes. Planned use can include the composition and presentation of puppet plays as responses to literature or as culminating projects for themes of study.

Students should have prior spontaneous, unstructured experiences with puppets to assist the procedures described in this section.

Purposes

• to develop students' imagination and creativity
• to provide opportunities for students to share oral interpretations of literature
• to provide a supportive environment for experimenting with voice and language
• to use language for various purposes

Adapting Literature Selections

• Model the procedure with students initially, using a favourite story or portions of a story.
• Choose a selection with few characters, interesting action and events, and limited scene changes.
• Create collaboratively a story map of the events the puppets could portray.
• Allow students to determine the roles and actions of the puppets by adapting dialogue from the story.
• Determine collaboratively what props, stage, scenery and puppets could be used.
• Ask students to construct the necessary props and puppets.
• Give roles to student volunteers.
• Provide adequate preparation and practice time.
• Share the puppet play with the class.
• Discuss with the peer audience and participants what they liked best about the performance.
• Encourage students to adapt other stories as puppet plays during their play time.

Creating Original Storylines and Dialogues

• Invite students to create characters for puppets from the classroom collection or from home.
• Ask each student to present a brief description of a puppet, focusing on the puppet's likes and dislikes, special skills, talents and background.
• Brainstorm and display a list of settings where these puppets might meet individually or for a group activity.
• Select two or three puppets from the group, and a setting from the list.
• Create collaboratively a story map of the events that thesepuppets could portray using the setting chosen.
• Determine appropriate dialogue and actions for each character.
• Expect that students may volunteer to practice and perform this play for the class.
• Provide adequate preparation and practice time.
• Share plays with the class or with other students.
• Encourage students to create original story lines and dialogues during their play time.

• Note students' efforts to use appropriate voice and dialogue to create and communicate puppet characters.
• Note students' ability to apply their knowledge of story structure to puppetry.
• Note students' interest and ability to communicate oral interpretations and responses to literature.

Reading Environmental Print

Through the incorporation of this strategy, students and teachers explore print and its many functions using materials that are readily available in the immediate environment. Students should be encouraged to add to collections and classroom displays of environmental print. These displays should change and expand to include materials related to specific themes of study, students' interests and experiences, and community events.

Examples of print which would interest students and provide relevant material for them to practice reading include:

• labels on classroom objects
  - chalkboard
  - chair
  - clock
  - desk
  - door
  - gerbil
  - library corner
  - light
  - locker
  - mirror
  - paints
  - shelf
  - sink
  - table
  - wall
  - waste basket
  - window
• posted instructions
  - "Scissors go here."
  - "Please keep this door closed."
• printed resources from home and the community
  - advertisements and flyers
  - catalogues
  - coupons
  - greeting cards
  - instructions for toy assembly or use
  - labels from canned foods
  - menus
  - milk and juice cartons
  - newspapers, magazines
  - recipes
  - replicas of street signs
  - toy labels, packages and price tags
  - telephone books
  - television guides
  - travel brochures.

• to interest students in print and in reading
• to emphasize the functional nature of print to beginning readers and writers--like talk, printed symbols convey meaning and often affect the actions and choices of people
• to build students' sight word vocabularies
• to assist word and letter recognition

• Introduce this strategy by using classroom labels.
• Ask students, in turn, to point to an object or surface, naming the object as they point.
• Print the label for each object, modelling the process by sounding the words slowly and forming letters carefully.
• Read completed labels and ask students to read them with you.
• Ask the student who named the object to attach the label to the item securely.
• Read and discuss environmental print samples collaboratively .
• Encourage students to scan the environmental print display frequently.
• Encourage students to use illustrations or the surrounding context to determine the words for the print samples that they cannot read.

• Observe students' interest in contributing examples and their response to environmental print to note which materials convey meaning to students.
• Note students' use of displayed words, letter combinations and letter formations in their emergent writing.
• Keep a record of students who contribute to the display and those who read the samples.
• Assess students' sight vocabulary partially by their recognition of displayed language.

• Realize that literacy begins in preschool years when children recognize and respond to logos and signs in their environment.
• Introduce classroom labels gradually. Three to five labels per week are suggested.
• Realize individual name tags are important labels.
• Print labels in upper and lower case letters.
• Arrange a basic classroom display of environmental print, comprised of printed materials found in most households and in the immediate community.
• Change display items frequently.