Knowledge of what constitutes effective teaching and learning has increased significantly. Likewise, knowledge of teaching and learning styles has led to an appreciation of what constitutes the best practice in meeting individual student needs. Learning is an interactive process. Students need to be actively involved in tasks that are achievable, useful, relevant and challenging if they are to respond successfully to the curriculum challenges posed for them (Instructional Approaches: A Framework for Professional Practice, 1991, p. 2).
In any Life Transitions class there will naturally be a variety of students who bring with them a variety of preferred learning styles. A student's learning style is the unique way in which she/he prefers to learn. Teachers also have unique learning styles. Teachers "tend to teach in harmony with their own learning styles" (Instructional Approaches: A Framework for Professional Practice, 1991, p. 8). If a teacher consistently teaches using a preferred learning style there may be numerous students whose learning styles do not match that of the teacher and, therefore, their needs will not be met. To meet the needs of the variety of students in a Life Transitions class, it is important that teachers utilize a variety of instructional approaches throughout each module.
Sample modules are included in this document. They are designed in considerable detail and include several instructional strategies and subsequent methods. Sample modules are designed in this way for two reasons:
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Instructional Strategies and Methods
Instructional strategies determine the approach a teacher may take to achieve learning objectives. Strategies can be classed as direct, indirect, interactive, experiential or independent.
Instructional methods are used by teachers to create learning environments and to specify the nature of the activity in which the teacher and learner will be involved during the lesson. While particular methods are often associated with certain strategies, some methods may be found within a variety of strategies.
In the following pages, a few of the most commonly used instructional methods from each of five instructional strategies will be described as they pertain to the Life Transitions courses.
Instructional Methods
Taken from Instructional Approaches: A Framework for Professional Practice, Saskatchewan Education, Regina, 1991.
The direct instruction strategy is highly teacher centred. The lecture method is a direct instruction example. Mini-lectures are commonly used in the Life Transitions sample modules.
| Mini-lecture |
The mini-lecture is a one-way type of communication. It is an efficient way of providing information in a short period of time.
Life Transitions 20, 30 mini-lectures are effective when they are:
Mini-lectures are primarily used within the Level A - Extend Knowledge Base portion of the Life Transitions curriculum design.
Assessment and Evaluation
The purpose of a mini-lecture is to impart knowledge. Appropriate ways of assessing understanding include a combination of test items such as essay, short answer, multiple choice, true and false; a close procedure; or designing a diorama.
| Structured Overview |
A Structured Overview refers to organizing and arranging topics or concepts to make them meaningful to students. It is often used as an advanced organizer at the beginning of a module.
Assessment and Evaluation
As this is usually used as an organizer, teachers are not likely to assess it.
| Compare and Contrast |
Compare and contrast involves looking for similarities and differences:
Assessment and Evaluation
The four components of compare and contrast as listed above can be used as criteria in the templates for anecdotal records, checklists and rating scales located in the Templates for Assessment and Evaluation section of this curriculum guide.
These are questions that tend to be convergent and factual. They often begin with "what", "where", "when" or "how".
Assessment and Evaluation
Didactic questioning is a strong component of Level C, Step 6, Evaluate your progress and Revise as needed. The Planning Process is used in conjunction with content. The teacher is able to assess the acquisition of content and observe the student's process of evaluating her/his progress by using . As a written assignment or an oral presentation/ interview (live or taped) may be the ongoing student activity used for assessment, the teacher will record student progress using a rating scale, checklist or anecdotal records. The criteria will be based on the content elements as well as the student application of the Planning Process.
Content criteria may include:
Process criteria may include:
The indirect instruction strategy is student centred. Indirect instruction methods are very effective when:
Some examples of indirect instructional methods follow.
| Concept Mapping |
This instructional method can promote creative, meaningful, long-term learning. In the Life Transitions 20, 30 curriculum, concept mapping is frequently used to encourage students to see the relationships between new information and what they already know. Concept mapping:
Assessment and Evaluation
As concept mapping is used as an engaging activity, synthesis activity or one that supplies diagnostic information, teachers may consider the type of information they wish to collect in assessing students' concept maps. Anecdotal records may be the most appropriate data recording method. Possible criteria to direct anecdotal comments may be:
These criteria may be inserted into the Anecdotal Record Template found in the next section of this document.
Novak and Gowin (1984), in Learning How to Learn, suggest assessing student concept maps by scoring the levels of hierarchy identified in the map, the relationships drawn among concepts, and the examples provided.
| Problem Solving |
Problem solving refers to a process of decision making or a series of steps used by individuals or groups to arrive at answers to questions or the solution to a problem. Steps may include:
Assessment and Evaluation
Teachers may insert these steps into a checklist, rating scale or anecdotal record template in order to record student information. These steps become the criteria.
| Case Studies |
Case studies refer to assigned scenarios based on real-life situations in which students observe, analyze, record, implement, conclude, summarize and/or recommend.
Assessment and Evaluation
Case studies in Life Transitions are ideal as ways of assessing student application of Level C, Step 5, Design an action plan. These may be used as a performance test item. The six steps of the Planning Process can be used as criteria on a checklist, anecdotal record form or rating scale. See also, Suggested Checklist to Grade Case Studies using a Decision-Making Process in the Templates for Assessment and Evaluation section.
| Reading for Meaning |
Reading for Meaning refers to determining information from written text. Meaning is based on the literal and implied meaning of the passage and the student's experiential and conceptual background.
Assessment and Evaluation
This implies application. Appropriate assessment of application includes performance assessments or performance tests. A sample assessment tool, Checklist to Assess Student's Ability to use Information in Reading for Meaning, is provided in the next section of this guide.
| Reflective Discussion |
Reflective discussion encourages students, individually or as a group, to think more deeply about a topic through discussion.
Assessment and Evaluation
Effective communication skills and contributions are criteria to be evaluated here. A sample assessment tool, Anecdotal Records in Reflective Discussion, is provided in the Templates section of this guide.
| Close Procedure |
Cloze procedure refers to a strategy in which key words are omitted from a textual passage, requiring students to supply words that construct meaning.
Assessment and Evaluation
The cloze forms the assessment instrument; therefore, the teacher may assess students' responses according to meaning. An anecdotal record may be appropriate to record students' understanding of:
Interactive Instruction Strategy
Interactive instructional strategies employ groups of learners. Before the group members "set to work", it is important that they are aware of what they are to accomplish, how much time they have, and what the recording and/or reporting procedures are.Successful use of interactive instructional methods in Life Transitions 20, 30 requires that the students be aware of particular group process skills. A few basics include respect for the opinions of others, attentive listening skills, and recording and reporting skills. The sample modules are designed to introduce the students and the teacher to these group process skills and to monitor the students' progress as they practice.
| Debates |
Preparing for and presenting in a debate involves students in a formal contest of skill in reasoned argument.
Assessment and Evaluation
Appropriate assessment techniques may include any of the data recording methods of anecdotal records, observation checklists or rating scales. A sample rating scale appropriate to debates is found on here in the Student Evaluation: A Teacher Handbook (1991).
| Role Playing |
Role playing refers to an activity in which students in a group have been individually assigned a part or a role to play. This method is often used to learn about group processes or to understand the feelings of others.
Assessment and Evaluation
Teachers may decide on the criteria they will use and insert them in any of the templates for anecdotal records, checklists or rating scales.
| Panels |
A panel refers to a small group of students that individually discuss an issue in front of the rest of the class under the direction of a moderator.
Assessment and Evaluation
Rating scales, checklists and anecdotal records are appropriate techniques for assessing students' performance on panels. A Holistic Rating Scale for an Oral Presentation is an example that may be adapted by the teacher. It is found on here in the Student Evaluation: A Teacher Handbook (1991).
| Peer Practice |
Peer practice involves students in rehearsing skills or conceptual information with a peer.
Assessment and Evaluation
In this curriculum, peer practice is used within Level B, Step 3, State the challenge and Explore alternatives and consequences. Teachers may use an anecdotal recording instrument that highlights student participation and contributions.
| Co-operative Learning Groups |
Co-operative learning groups are heterogeneous with respect to student characteristics and have two to six members sharing the various roles. The jigsaw, explained next in this section, is an example of a co-operative learning group.
Assessment and Evaluation
The self-evaluation instrument, My Group Skills/Performance, is provided in the next section of this document.
| Jigsaw |
Aronson (1978) developed the following method whereby students become "experts" on a topic and then meet with other "experts" to study their assigned topic.
To conduct a jigsaw:
For more information see the Resource Package which is included with the Staff Development Program that accompanies the Instructional Approaches document.
Assessment and Evaluation
The rating scale, Co-operative Group Skills, can be inserted into each student's portfolio and used over time. It is located in the Templates for Assessment and Evaluation section of this document.
| Brainstorming |
Brainstorming is used to generate ideas and imaginative solutions. The teacher acts as facilitator and records learner comments.
Brainstorming is most effective when:
In the Life Transitions 20, 30 courses brainstorms are used within Level A as a means of Reflecting on what students already know and feel about a particular issue. Brainstorming is also used as a means of Research, within Level A. Level B makes use of brainstorming as well when Exploring alternatives in decision-making.
Assessment and Evaluation
Teachers may decide to assess brainstorming when it is used in the context of co-operative learning groups. Anecdotal records may be the preferred method of recording data. A template is provided in the next section.
Independent Study Instruction Strategy
Learning contracts and research projects are two independent learning instructional methods used in the Life Transitions curriculum design.
| Learning Contracts |
Learning contracts are used continuously, in each module, at Level C of the Life Transitions 20, 30 curriculum design. Designing and Applying an action plan requires students to state their personal goal(s) and design an accompanying action plan to meet that goal. Learning contracts in Life Transitions 20, 30 are complete with support structure(s) and date(s) for evaluation and revision, if necessary.
Assessment and Evaluation
Learning contracts appear in the program as action plans in Level C - Carry Out Action Plan. To assess these action plans you may wish to refer to the Rating Scale for Action Plans found in the Templates for Assessment and Evaluation section of this guide.
| Research Projects |
Research projects are an integral part of Life Transitions 20, 30. The Teaching-Learning Process consists of three levels: Level A - Extend Knowledge Base, Level B - Make an Informed Decision, and Level C - Carry Out Action Plan. Research is the second step of Level A. Students are involved in research projects individually, as partners and as members of small groups.
Assessment and Evaluation
Consult the next section of the document to locate the sample checklist, A Framework for Marking a Project or a Written Assignment.
| Reports |
Reports may be written, graphic, or oral in nature and involve the students in expressing their learning about a chosen topic. Reports are used at Level A of the Planning Process.
Assessment and Evaluation
A written report can be assessed by using the Holistic Rating Scale to Mark an Essay, A Framework for Marking a Project or Written Assignment or Report Assessment. All three examples are located in the Templates for Assessment and Evaluation section of this guide.
| Homework |
Homework refers to assignments students are given that are to be completed during their time away from the classroom. Homework assignments can be used as an assessment technique and an instructional method.
Assessment and Evaluation
If homework is assigned for the purpose of assessment, it is important that students are informed of that intent from the outset. Examples of homework include assigned questions, creating a model and writing a summary. The assessment technique needs to match the homework format. Check the templates section for instruments that are useful. These can be modified to suit the homework assignment.
Experiential Instruction Strategy
The experiential instruction strategy can be described in the following ways. It:
| Field Trips |
Field trips refer to student activities that are conducted for an educational purpose outside the classroom.
Assessment and Evaluation
There are many ways to assess field trips. The choice of assessment is determined by the purpose of the field trip and the expected student outcomes. Teachers need to ensure that assessment techniques match the planned learning objectives.
Questions teachers might ask themselves while planning for assessment and evaluation are: "What learning objectives does the field trip address?" "What student groupings will be used?" "Are students working alone or in groups?"
| Simulations |
When using simulations, an artificial problem, situation or event that represents some aspect of reality is presented and students become active participants in the learning process. Simulations may involve the use of models, game formats and structured role plays.
Assessment and Evaluation
Students may choose to use role plays as a way of presenting the research they have conducted on a particular topic. Role plays may also be used in Level B while exploring alternatives and the subsequent consequences. A sample checklist to assess a role play, A Framework for Marking a Project/Role Play, is included in the next section.
| Role Playing |
Role playing refers to an activity in which individual students in a group have been assigned a part or a role to play. Role plays are often used to encourage students to learn about group processes or understand the feelings of others.
Assessment and Evaluation
Refer to role playing in Interactive Instructional Strategies.
| Surveys |
Conducting surveys involves the collection of information from a sample to determine the frequency of particular responses. Students have studied survey methods in mathematics throughout the middle and secondary level program.
Assessment and Evaluation
To assess students' abilities to construct a survey instrument, criteria may be chosen from the checklist, Assessing Application (Process) Skills.