| A Worldview | Questions to Ask About Your Worldview |
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(Why is it easy?) |
(Why is it difficult?) |
(Why is it impossible?) |
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1. Draw some initial inferences about the change process that can be tested against experiences in other societies at other times in history.
Gibbon grew up in the 18th century during the Enlightenment, a period of history that celebrated reason and despised religion. Gibbon thought Christianity was not based on reason at all, but was merely foolish superstition.
Gibbon combined his love for Rome and his scorn for Christianity, and proposed an answer to his question of why Rome fell. He argued that Christianity promoted weak values such as humility, gentleness, non-retaliation and forgiveness. These were hardly the qualities necessary for an empire that depended on military power to stay together. In addition, Gibbon argued that Christians are more concerned about a future life in heaven than they are about life on Earth, so naturally their contribution to earthly life is minimal.
According to Gibbon, Christianity also had the effect of drawing people's energies and attention away from Roman society and toward the church. People gave their time and money to the church. The lives of many individuals were devoted to the church, preventing them from being part of the economic, political or military life of Rome. As a result, the church flourished but the state began to weaken. Eventually, the Roman Empire began to support the church financially. This took even more resources away from the government bureaucracy and the military.
Gibbon argued that Christianity caused Rome to lose its pride, vigour and strength because it promoted weak values and drew attention and resources away from the important aspects of Roman society. Christians, Gibbons argued, were "the secret enemies of their country."
Although the Romans possessed technological skill, they never developed an industrialized economy. The Roman aristocracy owned land and was content to earn its money by having slaves farm the land. As a result, Rome had to purchase most of its manufactured goods from other countries. Rome traded natural resources in return for manufactured goods but, according to Lot, the Romans eventually had to import more and more, while at the same time they had less and less to export.
The invasion of Germanic tribes hastened the fall of Rome. According to Lot, these invasions cut Rome off from its sources of imports. A large number of people in Roman cities were traders and middlemen. Without trade, these people had no work to do. They were forced to leave the cities and look for work elsewhere, perhaps on a farm. Many of these former city dwellers knew little about agriculture, and were only concerned about growing enough for their own needs. As a result, Rome's economy became increasingly rural and isolated from the rest of the world.
With the cities and the countryside producing only enough food for its own needs, the government was unable to collect the taxes it needed to support its bureaucracy and army. With the economic base destroyed, it was only a matter of time until the empire fell altogether.
Although the emperor had a lot of power, there was one thing he could not always fully control-the military. Sometimes military leaders turned their troops against the emperor. Other times military leaders tried to establish their own countries in areas of the empire they were supposed to be defending.
Governments also failed to deal successfully with economic changes from the late third century on. As the empire became more expensive to govern, taxes were increased. However, the taxation system was extremely unfair; the burden of taxes fell mostly on the poor. In addition, the collection of taxes was corrupt. The job of tax collector was sold to the one who bid the highest for it. The tax collectors would then overcharge the taxpayers and keep the extra money for themselves. The government in Rome did nothing to discourage this practice. Eventually the tax burden became so difficult that people either stopped paying or stopped working. This was particularly true for farmers, who were taxed so heavily that many of them actually quit farming altogether.
According to many historians, Rome fell as a result of these and other economic and political factors.
The Germanic peoples were divided into many different social units called tribes or folks. The members of the tribes were united by the belief that they all descended from a common ancestor. Each tribe had its own set of customs and practices.
Chiefs or kings led the tribes. The king was recognized as the strongest and bravest warrior. He was elected by the male members of the most powerful families within the tribe. The king was served and protected by loyal group youths known as the "war band." This was made up of the bravest young men within the group. These young men pledged themselves to fight with the king, and never to leave the battlefield without him. Although the war bands began as groups of equals, ranks within the bands eventually developed so that some warriors had a higher rank than others. The high ranking warriors began to acquire land and wealth.
Most Germans were "freemen" who either owned a small plot of land that they farmed themselves, or were share croppers who rented land from a large land owner or noble, but retained their independence. The society also contained a class of serfs who were neither free nor slaves. These people were bound to a certain section of land and could not be sold apart from it.
Value System
Every person within a German group had a particular monetary value that was based on the person's actual or potential military value. In general, men of fighting age had the greatest value, women of child-bearing age came second, children came third and the aged had the least value. Each person's monetary value was established for the purposes of law. The penalty for any crime committed equalled the victim's monetary value. Thus, if a warrior whose life was valued at $100 was injured or killed, the accused had to pay $100 to the victim or his family. If the accused refused to pay or if the victim or his family refused to accept the money, a blood feud was declared between the families of the victim and the accused.
Power
People have the power to do what they wish when they have:
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| Lord | admission closed | danger of expulsion or assassination |
| Knight | admission very limited | danger of war |
| Priest | admission limited ,security, free from harsh physical labour of peasants | chastity, church discipline, poverty |
| Monk | admission limited, security | chastity, personal and church discipline, poverty |
| Nun | admission limited, security | chastity, personal and church discipline, poverty |
| Banker | high standard of living | very risky |
| Trader | freedom | very risky |
| Freeman | independence | very risky, no military |
| Serf | safety | loss of freedom, poverty |
Given the situation, ask yourself what the realistic alternatives are. Should you:
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on the Manor |
| King | The king was really just an important lord.
His resources included large landholdings, a small army, livestock, horses,
etc., but he usually did not have any more of these resources than some
other lords.
In order to administer and defend the territory over which he was king, he required more of the following resources:
In order to run the government, the king would attempt to order his nobles to contribute warriors, horses, gold, grain, meat, wool, (plus the necessary carts to transport the goods) and educated people. Very few people at this time were able to read and write; almost all of those who could were monks or high ranking church officials. The scarcity of educated men made them very valuable. Good warriors may have been even more valuable than scribes. The invention of the stirrup signified a major advance in war technology. It forced the development of more sophisticated and more expensive armour, which turned the knight into the equivalent of the modern tank. The arms race that resulted meant that knights were very expensive to equip and maintain. |
The king's power was very limited. He controlled:
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Although the king was at the top of the feudal pyramid, his standard of living depended upon the size of the land area that he owned and controlled. Generally, however, the king and his family enjoyed a better standard of living of than other nobles did because, in order to remain in the king's court, it was the duty of the lords to protect and provide for the king's needs. |
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on the Manor |
| Nobles | The resources of the nobles were not much different
from those of the kings; i.e. they had barely enough to look after themselves,
let alone trying to supply the king. The nobles felt that if they supplied
the king with what he was demanding, they would become too weak to feed
and protect themselves; they needed everything they could produce. Moreover,
the king was often some distance away and roads were extremely poor and
hazardous.
The nobles were more concerned about meeting their obligations to the church. Part of a Christian's duty was to give ten percent of his produce to the church. If this 10% donation, known as a tithe, was not given, the noble could be excommunicated from the church. This meant that the noble became a social outcast while alive and was damned to hell after death. |
The power of the nobles was great within the
areas they controlled, but minimal in other areas.
On their own property, nobles had power over:
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Although the nobles were privileged compared
to the serfs, their standard of living was still very low according to
modern standards. Regarding the quality and quantity of food, nobles had
only a little more than the serfs; i.e. during a famine, the nobles would
be the last to starve, but they would still starve.
The nobles enjoyed houses that were somewhat larger and better constructed than those of the serfs. Nevertheless, nobles still had to suffer with drafty, uninsulated walls and leaky roofs. Hence, despite their status and wealth, nobles lived a pretty miserable life. |
| Church | The resources of the church were great:
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The power of the church was great:
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The standard of living for the church was good compared to other classes of people because of the great power it held over kings, nobles and serfs. The church accumulated land by taking it from lords in exchange for clerical services such as funerals and marriages. The monks and nuns, who dedicated their lives to serving the church, farmed this land. On this land, the monks and nuns tended livestock and developed better methods of growing crops. Therefore, they had their own food and produce in addition to that given to them as tithes. |
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on the Manor |
| Serfs | Serfs had no resources and their needs were
great. They lived with inadequate food, shelter and clothing. Serfs were
peasants who:
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Serfs were virtually powerless. They belonged to the land, and in turn to the nobles and the king. They were considered to be part of the land, and were included when land was sold or bought. They had to have the permission of the noble in order to marry or leave the manor. | Most serfs had a very miserable life. Finding
enough food to survive was a constant struggle. Of the food that was available,
there was very little variety, such that most people did not get enough
of the many important vitamins and nutrients they needed. As a result of
this poor diet, illness and death were common.
Not only was food inadequate, but so were clothing and shelter. Most serfs suffered from inadequate clothing, both in quality and quantity. Serfs lived in crude shacks along with their livestock. In winter, the livestock were a blessing because they contributed some body heat to the drafty, uninsulated shacks. However, livestock often had to be slaughtered during the winter because there was not enough food for them. |
The lord lived in a well protected dwelling. It was usually constructed on a hill or other high place, and was often surrounded by a moat (a ditch of water). Frequently, it was a wooden castle with separate rooms for servants, toilets, kitchen and storage. However, living quarters were usually not large compared to modern standards. For example, one large room usually served as a dining room, living room and bedroom. Windows were small and often covered to keep out the rain. However, lords could more easily afford candles or torches to provide some light.
The lord rose at dawn to attend to his work. This involved supervising the various operations of the manor. The main role of the manor was to produce food for the lord and his subjects. Because the lords needed food as much as the serfs, the lords were usually quite active in managing the agricultural output of the manor. If the manor produced a surplus of food, it was the lord's responsibility to find a market for it. Other tasks included organizing the construction and maintenance of bridges, roads, canals, etc. The entire burden of planning and organizing this work was the lord's, unless he could find a very able serf to whom he could entrust some of his authority.
The lord also served as judge of the village. Although often the serfs were allowed to stage their own trials, the lord remained the ultimate authority in these issues. He also profited from fines paid by offenders.
The lord's wife was equally busy organizing the household. She bore and raised many children, and made sure they developed proper manners. She also supervised the many tasks of the servants, such as making butter and cheese, doing laundry, preserving meat, preparing meals, making clothes, etc. If her husband went to war she took over the financial and military management of the manor, and was expected to supply his financial needs during the war. If her husband died and they had no son, she inherited the estate, but was expected to remarry within a short time in order to provide her estate with military protection.
The church was also the centre of social life, as the religious events of baptisms, weddings and funerals were cause for great feasts and parties. These and other celebrations were held in the church yard.
The priest held mass every Sunday and on Holy days. During the mass he taught Christian values and beliefs. A popular theme was the awful suffering that sinners would experience in hell.
Other duties of priests included such things as: blessing fields in the spring before seed time by sprinkling water on them; and reading orders and messages from the king and church authorities.
As the children of lords, knights had a fairly comfortable childhood. The children of lords, unlike peasant children, were not required to work until the age of seven or eight. At that time, they were usually sent to the house of a friend or relative. There the boy would act as a servant to the lord and would receive his training as a fighter. This was his period of education, and it was designed to teach him to be unquestioningly loyal to his lord, devoted to service to his lord, and to be courageous and fierce in battle, yet still be a gentleman. This was the code of chivalry. Knighthood was based on the ideas of chivalry, which included the belief that war is romantic and noble. Values such as loyalty, devotion, courage, and respect for the enemy were all part of chivalry.
When he reached the age of 18 or 19, a knight was sent out to travel with other young knights. Because their main object was to fight, these bands of knights would rove around in search of a conflict. When they found one, they would join the battle on whatever side seemed most appropriate to them. When they weren't involved in local wars, knights travelled to tournaments in which they could test their fighting skills. The tournaments lasted for days, if not weeks, and were marked by loud parties, gambling, drinking and prostitution.
As a fighter, the knight was equivalent to the tank of today. His armour was almost impenetrable, such that relatively few knights actually died in combat, even if the fighting was brutal. A small but very significant invention increased the fighting power of the knight considerably. That invention, which came from China, was the stirrup. The rider could brace himself by using the stirrups, and thus use his full strength as well as that of the horse for maximum advantage in battle. The stirrup made jousting with long lances possible. A good knight could gallop at full speed and use his lance to send other knights flying off their horses.
Although knights were to be the protectors of the poor, the weak and the church, they often terrorized as much as they protected. In the midst of drunkeness or battle, the code of chivalry was not always followed.
After travelling for two or three years, young knights returned home, still fully dependent on their father. Until his father died, a young knight could neither marry nor inherit property. This was a period of frustration for knights, because they could not get on with the business of marrying and setting up their own estate.
The trader had to get permission and had to pay a special toll to enter each manor. Other manors might charge him an extra toll for using their roads.
The trader survived from day to day on the food he could purchase with his goods. Very few traders prospered; most just survived. Being a trader was a dangerous occupation with few financial benefits. As a result, very little trade occurred, and most of the trade that did occur was localized.
Both male and female serfs worked in the fields, but females took care of most of the household chores. These included raising the children, milking the sheep (or cows), taking care of the chickens, shearing sheep, spinning wool, making clothing for the family, tending the garden, baking, preparing meals and preserving food. Women also managed the household economy. The family depended on the mother's wise management of food supplies to keep them fed from month to month and year to year.
The average peasant family lived in a windowless, one room house with a dirt floor. Furnishings usually included a fireplace for cooking, one or two beds, a table, several stools and a chest for storing clothes. Not suprisingly, these houses were dark, drafty, sooty and had leaky roofs. A shed was sometimes attached to the house. This served as a storage place for tools and a shelter for animals. Sometimes animals had the run of the house.
A typical noon meal consisted of stew made with cabbage, onions, peas and turnips, seasoned with a bone or perhaps a bit of meat.
Male serfs worked in the fields most of the time. However, they were obligated to work part of the time for the lord of the manor. The lord would have other work for the serfs besides field work. This might include taking care of the lord's animals, cutting down trees for firewood, digging a well, and constructing or maintaining the lord's buildings and roads.
The male peasant would return home at sundown, after putting in ten or twelve hours of hard physical labour. The evening meal, which would usually be leftovers from lunch, would then be eaten. Following that, the family would retire for the evening.
Although the life of a serf was mostly one of hard work, there was some time for entertainment. Loud and boisterous dances were held with the aid of much liquor.
Although in the Mediterranean world the mill was used only for grinding grain, in Northern Europe the mill became a source of power for numerous industries. Water power came to be used for forge hammers and forge bellows, which were used to make iron. It was also used to power saws and lathes.
| Area of Change | Possible Changes |
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2. What other changes can you or your group suggest? In what areas of life?
| The Medieval Worldview | The Urban Worldview |
Beliefs, Values and Ideas
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Beliefs, Values and Ideas
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The four horsemen of the apocalypse, an image from the Bible in which angels of plague, war, famine and death plunder the world, became a popular theme in art and literature. No wonder, as Europe had plenty of plagues, wars, famine and death to go around in the 14th century.
The bubonic plague broke out in China in 1331 and was brought across the Asian caravan routes to southern Russia by 1346. In 1347 the plague went to Italy. In the next two years, it spread north throughout the rest of Europe.
The black rat was one of the main agents responsible for spreading this terrible disease. The plague was caused by bacteria that resided in the stomach of a flea. These fleas, in turn, lived in the fur of black rats. The rats lived on filth. They were also international voyagers, catching free rides on cargo ships and travelling from one port to another. When they stopped off to visit cities they brought their plague infested fleas with them. Flea bites were common and people thought nothing of them. But one bite from a plague infested flea resulted in almost certain death for that individual and for most of the family as well.
The disease started as a growth on the neck, groin or armpit, ranging in size from a nut to an apple. This boil caused agonizing pain. If it was lanced and the puss drained, there was a possibility of recovery. The second stage of the disease was the appearance of black blotches, caused by bleeding under the skin. This was followed by violent coughing and spitting up of blood. Usually within two or three days the person was dead. The horrid manner of death was made worse by the isolation of the victims. The disease was so disgusting and revolting that, with the exception of priests and nuns, few were willing to give compassionate care to the victims.
It is impossible to say how many people died from the plague. Within cities, anywhere from one third to two thirds of the population died from the disease. Since the rats did not spread to the countryside, most people in rural areas were not affected by the disease. Still, it is estimated that about one third of the population of Europe died.
As you can imagine, the plague had devastating effects on medieval society. Many people saw the plague as God's judgement on society. This led some to question why a good God would allow such a horrible disease to occur. Some abandoned their faith in God as a result. In short, there was much confusion and much questioning in society. Many felt that if the plague was God's judgement, then some serious changes needed to take place to make society more pleasing to God.
During the medieval period, war was seen as being beautiful, glamorous and romantic. It made men noble and glorious. War was part of the aristocratic code of behaviour known as chivalry. Fighting skill, bravery and respect for the enemy were all part of the chivalric code and war was the perfect opportunity for an aristocratic knight to demonstrate his chivalry. Prisoners were released with the promise that they would return to pay their ransom. They usually did because honesty and respect for the enemy were aspects of the code of chivalry.
Aristocratic knights were mounted on horses and decked out in full suits of armour. Their weapons were usually swords and lances (long spears). Serfs also fought in wars as foot soldiers. Because of the cost of armour and the importance of mobility, they did not wear full armour. Their weapons were clubs and crossbows.
At the beginning of the Hundred Years War, aristocrats and knights flocked to the battlefield for another display of chivalric honour. However, this was to be a war that would eventually spell the end of chivalry and "knights in shining armour."
It was technological advancements that changed the way war was fought and perceived. The longbow was developed by the English in the 11th century and was used effectively against the French. Three arrows could be shot from a longbow for every one shot from a crossbow. The hail of arrows that English serfs fired at French knights did not penetrate their armour, but killed their horses and forced them to fight on the ground, which was both awkward and undignified for a knight. They made easy targets for the British knights atop their horses.
The other technological development that helped to destroy chivalry and knighthood was gunpowder. The British used cannons in battle against the French. This new weapon caused great fear and confusion, and ultimately made armour obsolete.
The drawn-out war had drastic impacts for both the English and the French. The scale of the war was enormous compared to most medieval battles. At least ten percent of the population from both countries was directly or indirectly involved in the war. This disrupted the economies of both countries. The war also proved to be extremely expensive. To pay for it, nobles and kings began to raise the taxes of the serfs and poor classes in the cities. This led to inflation, which became a serious problem in both France and England.
Knights rode around the countryside and terrorized rich and poor alike. They plundered villages, demanded protection money from defenceless serfs, and kidnapped the rich and demanded a ransom. Most of this crime went unpunished because there were few authorities strong enough to stop it. When they were arrested, knights used threats, bribes or connections to escape punishment.
Some who believed that the plague was a punishment sent by God whipped and beat themselves in an attempt to pay for the sins of themselves and society as a whole. Others took to heart the words "eat, drink and be merry, for tomorrow you die." Still others turned to a life of severe self-discipline and frenzied religious expression.
Overall, people became extremely pessimistic about life. The art and literature of this period reveals a morbid preoccupation with death. As well, people began to doubt and question all of the values and beliefs that were the foundation of medieval society.
In order to maintain their standard of living, the lords would have to find a way to earn more money. But the only form of income for most lords was the rent and duties paid to them by their serfs for the use of land, baking ovens, flour mills, etc. But, throughout the 14th century, the rent and other obligations owed to lords by serfs had been decreasing. The reason for this was a labour shortage caused by large numbers of deaths in the 14th century due to wars, plagues and famines. Lords needed to recruit new serfs to work their land. The demand for serfs meant that the serfs could negotiate better working conditions for themselves, with lower rent and fewer duties and taxes to pay to the lord. Thus, lords were losing money in two ways: they were paying more to buy goods and were earning less income.
The lords concluded that they had no choice in the matter. To maintain their standard of living they would have to begin raising their rent and charging the serfs some of the old duties and taxes they had previously paid.
The common people in France and England blamed the nobility for the long and futile Hundred Years War. It was the nobles' war, not their war; yet, the nobles expected them to pay for it.
Common people also suffered because of the restrictions on trade. Traders had to pay tolls and taxes to lords in order to trade on the lords' land. These regulations had a negative impact on both traders and serfs. If traders were allowed to work more freely, serfs would benefit from lower prices and greater access to a wider variety of goods.
Kings and lords also tried to impose greater taxes on serfs in order to pay for wars and other expenses. Although the conditions that serfs experienced differed greatly from country to country as well as within countries, serfs throughout Europe began to rebel against the nobility. Bloody and violent peasant revolts broke out in many parts of Europe in the 14th century. The greatest number of revolts, as well as the largest, occurred in France and England. In many cases, artisans, traders and priests joined the peasants.
The brutality of the revolts demonstrated the resentment of the peasants towards the nobility. Serfs would sweep through the countryside killing nobles, raping their wives and daughters, destroying their livestock and burning their castles. In what was probably the largest of these revolts, approximately 100,000 English peasants rampaged through the countryside in 1381, killing and destroying with brutal savagery.
