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What I know about Canada's Aboriginal peoples |
What I want to know about Canada's Aboriginal peoples |
What I learned about Canada's Aboriginal peoples |
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The Aboriginal peoples of Canada include the Indian, Métis and Inuit.
It is preferred, and appropriate when speaking about a specific nation, to refer to the group according to their national origin. In Saskatchewan the main nations are: Cree, Anishinabeg, Dene, Nakota and Dakota.
When speaking about the Métis or "mixed blood" peoples, be aware that the political body that represents this group has stated that the term that they prefer is Métis. The historical term "mixed blood" referred to the children of an Indian parent and a Scottish or English parent. The term Métis comes from the Spanish word Mestizo, itself derived from the Latin word "mistus" that means mixed. Originally, Métis referred to the children of an Indian parent and a parent of French ancestry.
The term Eskimo is no longer used to describe the Indigenous peoples of the Canadian north. Eskimo is a Cree word meaning "eaters of raw meat." The Inuit always referred to themselves as Inuit, "The People."
Remember that Indian, Métis and Inuit peoples, as well as any other people, have the right to define themselves, regardless of how others define or label them.
Legal Distinctions
Registered Indian people are those people who are registered with the federal government as possessing Indian status according to Canadian law. This definition is used in context of historical legislation. Not all Indian people have been officially recognized as such by the Canadian government.
Métis are not eligible to be registered unless they were originally part of the treaty process. Inuit are not registered, but do come under the jurisdiction of the federal department of Indian and Northern Affairs because they are so entitled by the British North America Act (Supreme Court decision). The registration process continues today, especially in light of Bill C-31, 1985, an amendment to The Indian Act.
Treaty Indian people are those who are recognized as Status Indian people by virtue of their ancestors or themselves having entered into a treaty with the Crown or federal government. Reinstated Status Indian people are those who have been registered under the amendment to The Indian Act, Bill C-31, 1985. They are required to make further application to specific bands to receive band membership.
The designations Indian, Métis and Inuit, that are acknowledged in The Constitution Act, 1982 are most readily accepted by these respective nations. Designations such as Status, non-Status or reinstalled may be controversial.
The Nations
Life in the northern forests was an exercise in survival and one of hardship for many of the Woodland Cree. The horse did not reach the Cree until the late 1700s. Animals such as the moose, caribou, beaver and bear were hunted and formed a large part of the Woodland Cree diet. Woodland hunters were limited due to the problems inherent in moving large quantities of meat. To maintain a food supply, the people were continuously hunting. Preservation techniques were highly developed.
The Woodland Cree took advantage of the easier hunting and more leisurely life on the plains. The bison roamed in large herds and the kill was relatively easy with the use of the buffalo pound, buffalo jumps and horses. The Cree obtained the horse from the Nakota through trade and became adept at raiding other camps for horses. The horse provided faster travel, made access to the buffalo easier, and provided the opportunity for bands to expand their territory to the plains. These factors influenced the genesis of Plains Cree society.
The Plains Cree developed from those bands of Woodland Cree in northern Saskatchewan and Manitoba that periodically moved out from their home on the edge of the forest to hunt buffalo on the prairies. They decided to stay there hunting the buffalo, and then became involved in the fur trade as it expanded westward.
The Cree quickly became the largest Indigenous group in Canada. Sub-groups are the Plains, Woodland, Swampy, Eastern, Assiniboine and Anishinabeg. Oral history says the Cree nation was once divided into 12 bands, occupying the sub-arctic and plains regions.
The Siksika by 1750 had acquired horses and guns and had expanded their territory from the Rocky Mountains into what is now Saskatchewan, and from the North Saskatchewan River almost to the Upper Missouri River, in the present day United States. The term "Blackfoot" refers to the three nations that formed a confederacy: the Siksika (Blackfoot), the Pikuni (Peigan) and the Kainai (Blood). Each was independent, but members of all three nations spoke an Algonkian dialect. They were further united by common customs and intermarriage. The name Blackfoot is a translation of what they called themselves, "Siksikauwa", which may refer to the moccasins they wore that were either painted black or darkened by prairie fires.
The Dakota are a large confederacy of bands scattered over the American plains and the Canadian west who speak the same root language. The name Sioux is a French translation of the Anishinabeg word "nadouessoux" meaning "adders" in the sense of enemies or hated foes. Euro-Canadians abbreviated this to Sioux, although these people have always referred to themselves as Dakota, "Our Allies."
Nearly 200 years ago the Dakota fought the Cree north of the borders of present day Manitoba. One of the Dakota sub-groups, the Nakota (Assiniboine), occupied large areas of Saskatchewan. The Nakota made peace with the Cree and they became allies about 1770. The Nakota retained their own hunting territory and are recognized as a separate nation. The Dakota who live in Canada are registered by the Department of Indian Affairs and are therefore Status; however, the Dakota are not Treaty people and do not receive treaty monies.
Called "the people who cook with hot stones", the Nakota settled and hunted on land surrounding Lake Nipigon in Ontario and the Lake of the Woods in Manitoba. By the 1700s many Nakota bands had drifted to the northwest, dividing into two branches. One branch chose to encamp at the treeline northwest of Lake Winnipeg, while the other migrated southward to the valley of the Assiniboine River.
About the middle of the 18th century the Nakota obtained the horse and flintlock rifle which enabled them to expand their territory further west. Allying themselves with the Cree, they opposed the Blackfoot Confederacy for control of the prairies. They fought against the Dakota across Canada and into the United States, threatening the territories of the Mandan, Kootenay, and even the Salish beyond the Rocky Mountains. At the turn of the 18th century, the Nakota hunting grounds encompassed all the Canadian plains.
Alexander Henry, writing in his Journal of Adventures (1809), estimated the Nakota population at 10,000 at the beginning of the 19th century. In 1842, estimates placed their numbers at 3,040. The 1890 Dominion Blue Book (census) fixes the Nakota population of Alberta and Saskatchewan at 1,042. The decline in population resulted from smallpox and other epidemics. The Nakota bands in Saskatchewan today are the Mosquito, Grizzly Bear's Head, Lean Man, Carry-the Kettle, Ocean Man and Pheasant's Rump bands.
The Dene inhabit the country north of the Churchill River, inland from Hudson's Bay. They refer to themselves as Dene which means "The People". Their neighbours to the north are the Inuit, and to the south the Cree. Subgroups of the Dene are Chipewyan, Slavey, Dogrib, Hare, Beaver, Yellowknife, Sekani and Nahani. Competition in the fur trade created territorial disputes among the Dene, Cree and Inuit.
In earlier times, the Métis came from the marriages of European men to Indian women. According to Dr. Howard Adams, who wrote Prison of Grass, the Métis were initially the result of deliberate policies established by the Europeans to create a people who would fulfil the role of the working poor, the labouring class of the fur trade. The offspring of English and Scottish mixed marriages were known as "mixed blood" while those of Indian-French marriages were called Métis or Brois-Brules.
The Inuit lived in isolation from European and Canadian intrusions until the middle 19th century. Over the next hundred years whalers, fur traders, missionaries and the military had profound effects upon the survival of the Inuit and their traditional lifestyles. The largest concentration of Inuit is in the Northwest Territories (more than 60%) and Northern Quebec. The language is Inuktitut and approximately 75% of Inuit speak it today. Sub-groups are the Mackenzie, Copper, Netsilik, Caribou, Igloolik, South Baffin Island, Sadliq, Ungava and Labrador Inuit.
Source: Native Studies: A Curriculum Guide for Grade 10, Saskatchewan Education. 1991.
Introduction
Spirituality is one of the four aspects of life outlined within the traditional principles of Indian philosophy. The other aspects are emotional, intellectual and physical. Spiritual systems develop within cultures from a basic human need for personal fulfillment. They also develop from the need to find an identifiable role and place for humanity within the universe, and to find meaning and purpose in life and death.
North American Indian religious systems and forms of spirituality are richly diverse. Within Saskatchewan alone are five Indian cultural groups, each with a unique set of spiritual systems, rituals and ceremonies that have been developed over the course of thousands of years.
The importance attached to these systems by their members is so personal that information about the systems is not often revealed to outsiders. When knowledge is gained, it should be treated so as to maintain respect for the beliefs, values and feelings of the systems' members.
There were certain general values, beliefs and practices common to the Indian cultures within pre-contact Saskatchewan. The following sections outline some of these. Keep in mind, however, that the descriptions of traditional Indian spirituality in Saskatchewan are intended to be generalizations. In some cases, the generalizations made are true for all the Indian cultures that existed within pre-contact Saskatchewan; in other cases the generalizations are valid only for a majority of the cultures, but not all.
The Creator
During the pre-contact time period in Saskatchewan the most important figure in Indian spirituality was the life-giving and life-sustaining source, the Creator.
The Plains Cree refer to the Creator in their own language as Kitche Manitou, which roughly translated means "Great Spirit". The Dakota people refer to the Creator as Wakan Tanka or "Great Mystery".
Traditionally, the Creator was revered. Many of the prayers passed down from the Ancestors through the Elders to the Indian peoples of today reflect a feeling of frailty, weakness and humility in relation to humanity's position before the Creator.
The pre-contact peoples felt that human beings were far too spiritually powerless and insignificant to even attempt to approach the Creator directly through prayer requests and other forms of reverence. The Creator was traditionally considered so powerful and mighty that most people rarely spoke of the Creator. They believed it was necessary for human beings to call upon the aid of spiritual beings to pray for them when addressing requests of or giving thanks to the Creator.
Spirituality Among Individuals and Groups
Traditionally, spirituality was both group and individual-centred. The right to self-determination by each and every group member was respected by all group members. It was recognized that each person had the right to express and satisfy spiritual needs in his or her own way, provided that these expressions did not place the safety, survival or well-being of the community in danger. Spirituality was a very basic and often times very private form of self-expression.
Spirituality was also group-centred. Many of the rituals and ceremonies practiced by the pre-contact peoples were intended to serve as community-building activities, as well as formal means of expressing common spiritual needs. Although any individual at almost any time and in almost any place could pray, smoke the sacred pipe, and make offerings to the Creator and other spiritual beings, it was traditionally believed that more spiritual power and effect could be had if a group of individuals shared in these activities.
Spirituality and Nature
It was believed that every living thing created by the Creator, including humans, possessed a spirit. The eagle had a spirit, trees contained spirits, every buffalo and moose had its own spirit, etc. Other entities such as water, fire and stone were thought to possess spirits too. Some of the most powerful spirits were considered to be those within natural phenomena such as wind, thunder, rain and snow.
The sun was considered to be the most powerful spiritual entity. The high point within the spiritual systems of each of the Indian cultures of Saskatchewan was when all the bands within an entire individual cultural group came together during the summer for the Sun Dance. Though the Dene people developed ceremonies different from those developed by the cultural groups located further south, they too shared with those cultures respect for the sun as a spiritual entity.
This is not to suggest that the pre-contact peoples could be classified as "sun worshippers". They revered the sun as the greatest manifestation of power stemming from the Creator, the ultimate source of all life.
The Indian peoples of pre-contact Saskatchewan felt a kinship with all animals and birds. They believed that the Creator had placed creatures on the Earth to teach humans valuable lessons about life, as well as to provide humans with food, clothing, shelter and other life-sustaining items that could be created from their bodies. The extent of the feeling of kinship was such that animals were often referred to as "younger brothers" by the people of the various cultures.
Although the pre-contact peoples realized they possessed the ability to overcome animals, they also realized that animals possessed characteristics that were far greater than those belonging to humans, such as bravery, endurance, or the ability to fly or to swim without surfacing for air. Animals and birds were highly respected, either for the food and resources they could provide for humans or for the lessons about life that people could learn by studying their behaviour.
Some animals and birds were considered sacred. Within most of the pre-contact cultures of southern Saskatchewan, the eagle was considered the most spiritually powerful bird. This was in part due to the perception that, of all created things, only the eagle had the physical ability to get close to the Creator through flight into the farthest reaches of the sky. It was believed the Creator resided in the sky, although the Creator's power was believed to be everywhere.
For the pre-contact cultures of northern Saskatchewan and beyond, the crow (the raven in other areas) was considered the most sacred bird. In many of the cultures, myths and sacred stories centred upon the adventures of the crow, portrayed as a clown and trickster and, ultimately, as the Creator's intended role model for humans.
It was believed that the crow was chosen as the human role model partly because its nature was similar to that of human beings. It was generally believed that both crows and humans, at the time of creation, were "brothers". Although the Creator chose to separate them by providing each with a different physical form, the pre-contact peoples did not lose their traditional view of the crow as a "relative" to humanity.
Sacred birds and animals were never deliberately killed by the pre-contact peoples. Feathers from the birds, claws, and tufts of fur from the animals were, however, extremely prized as spiritually powerful objects.
Prayers and Rituals
Whether undertaking hunting, fishing, gathering, or trapping, pre-contact peoples would pray to the Creator asking for success. Before and immediately after obtaining fish or killing an animal a prayer would be said to the spirit of the animal or fish. The specific prayers varied from person to person but normally involved thanking the animal or fish for its self-sacrifice, and for giving its life so that the man and his family would not perish.
Smoking from the sacred pipe, saying prayers and making offerings of cloth, tobacco and/or other sacred items were essential elements or pre-contact spirituality.
The sweat lodge ceremony was often done to prepare for greater rituals such as the vision quest or the sun dance. At other times it was done on its own for physical and spiritual cleansing, and as a means of giving thanks
to the Creator. Once all preparations had been made, the participants would enter the sweat lodge led by the advisor. Various rituals would be conducted within the lodge, including the burning of incense such as sweet grass, the creation of a smudge, and the smoking of the sacred pipe.
Within most of the pre-contact cultures of Saskatchewan the shaping of an individual's identity was marked by the experiencing of visions through the ceremony of vision seeking. Sometimes visions were experienced by individuals suddenly, without any forewarning or any type of ceremony involved. Whether a vision was obtained through formal ceremonies or through the will of the Creator, it was considered extremely important in helping individuals determine for themselves their meaning as persons and their purpose to the community.
Another very important aspect was the singing of sacred songs, similar in purpose to the singing of hymns during religious services within Christian churches, the chanting of mantras within certain sects of Hinduism and Buddhism, and the singing of psalms within Judaism. In each case, singing and chanting are additional forms of spiritual expression.
Many of the sacred songs within traditional Indian spirituality in Saskatchewan had their origins with the ancestors, and were subsequently passed onto succeeding generations. Songs were also often received by members of succeeding generations through visions. It was believed that such songs originated within the spiritual world, and were taught to the vision recipient by the spiritual being (such as the spirit of the bear, the spirit of the horse, etc.)
Songs were passed on from one generation to the next. Certain songs could also be purchased by one cultural group from another. Traditional oral history indicates many instances of special songs being purchased by the plains Cree from the Blackfoot, or the Nakota from the Dakota.
Although the cultural groups of pre-contact Saskatchewan would from time to time enter into economic competition with each other, their basic spiritual beliefs were similar enough that sharing, such as through the exchange of songs and some rituals, was not uncommon.
Source: Native Studies: A Curriculum Guide for Grade 10. Saskatchewan Education, 1991.
Group A - Examine the following illustration that shows the relationship of humans to the environment. Write two to three sentences to describe your group's understanding of the relationship as portrayed by the illustration.
Web
Group B - Examine the following illustration that shows the relationship of humans to the environment. Write two to three sentences to describe your group's understanding of the relationship as portrayed by the illustration.
Pyramid
Source: Connecting Canada: A Resource for Canadian Students. Canadian Education Association. 1992, p. 58. Reprinted with permission of the Toronto District School Board.
Article by Sheldon Cardinal
There are many misconceptions about the Treaties that were signed between representatives of the Federal Government and the Treaty First Nations. There are people who believe that First Nations sold the land. Some people believe that Treaty First Nations are getting free health care, education and a myriad of other rights. Some people believe that Treaty First nations do not pay taxes. While others believe that all of the Treaty rights are a burden on the Canadian taxpayers. In the first of a series of articles, I want to address some of these concerns.
One of the things that the Elders have been saying is that education is important. First Nations need to educate not only themselves but also the non-native population. We all need to have a better understanding of the Treaty rights so that eventually we can live in harmony as was envisioned in the Treaty negotiations.
I believe that one of the most important issues that needs to be addressed is the issue of land. The Assembly of First Nations, National Chief, Phil Fontaine, was reported as saying that all of the land in Canada was originally First Nations' land. Unfortunately, for a variety of reasons, First Nations have lost most of the land. It is to the point that if you add up all of the reserve land in Canada, First Nations own less than one percent of the land in Canada. I guess the question that needs to be answered is what happened?
One of the major problems in the Treaty negotiations is that you had two very distinct peoples with different cultural beliefs and understandings. The non-Native people believe in the written word. Consequently, the Federal Government has always maintained that the true meaning of the Treaties lies in the written text. Treaty First Nations, on the other hand, believe that there were many promises made to our forefathers that did not make it into the written text of the Treaty. Who is right? Unfortunately, the Federal Government's version of the Treaty has been upheld in many Supreme Court of Canada decisions. However, with the entrenchment of Treaty rights and recent cases like Delgamuukw, there is finally recognition that the oral tradition is the equivalent to the written word. So what does it mean? Finally, Treaty First Nations can address their issues and have a better chance of getting our rights fulfilled because the courts are now ready to uphold the promises that were made during the Treaty negotiations.
With respect to the issue of land, the Federal Government believes that the Treaty First Nations surrendered the land. Support for this notion comes from the written text of the Treaties where it states: "the said Indians do hereby cede, release, surrender and yield up all of their rights, titles and privileges, whatsoever." It does not matter what Treaty you are from. Each Treaty has basically the same language.
Treaty First Nations have a different understanding. We believe that the Treaties were not land surrender Treaties but rather Treaties for peace and friendship. If you look at the timeline when the Treaties were signed, then you will find that the Federal Government wanted to ensure peaceful settlement of the West. Peace was something that the Treaty Commissioners stressed to the Treaty First Nations. Peace was the main reason for signing the Treaties. Another important aspect is the land cession language. Treaty First Nations did not believe that they were selling the land. Instead, they were agreeing to share the land with the non-Native people. Specifically, what we agreed to share was six inches of topsoil for farming purposes only. All of the timber and natural resources still belong to Treaty First Nations.
One of the reasons for the different beliefs is translation problems. There were many problems that occurred during the Treaty negotiations. First, there is the problem with the land cession language. There is no word in any First Nations language for cede, release, or surrender. So, it would have been next to impossible for Treaty First Nations to give up the land. Second, there is the issue of who was hired to do the translations. In some cases, it was Métis people. These people were paid by the Federal Government and were given land. So, the question arises, whose side were the translators on? I would have to say the Federal Governments. Third, there are many questions about the competency of the translators. In Treaty 7, one of the translators only knew Cree which did not help the situation because the people were Blackfoot. It would have made translation next to impossible to try to go from English to Cree and then to Blackfoot. Especially, when there are no words in Cree or Blackfoot for surrendering the land. In addition, the translator admitted on his death bed that he lied to the Indians during the Treaty negotiations. The other translator spent the entire negotiations drunk.
So what does this all mean? From a Treaty First Nations standpoint, we were signing a Treaty of Peace and Friendship. All we agreed to do was share the topsoil with the non-Native settlers. Therefore, First Nations should have jurisdiction over more of our traditional territories. This should form the basis for future land claim negotiations.
Sheldon Cardinal. "Understanding the Treaties," Eagle Feather News. Vol. 1, No. 10, Dec. 1. Reprinted with permission.
Student Name ___________________________Class_____________________ Date__________________
Viewpoint Topic_____________________________________________ Author______________________
1. List two arguments the author presents to support his/her thesis.
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2. Find and record one statement or fact the author makes in the viewpoint.
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3. Find and record one statement of opinion the author makes in the viewpoint.
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4. If you are able, find one example of faulty reasoning (for example, the use of a stereotype, scapegoat technique, ethnocentrism, etc.)
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5. Where is the author's argument weakest, and how would an opponent of the viewpoint likely attack it?
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6. Where is the author's argument most convincing and why?
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7. Give the main reason you agree or disagree with this viewpoint.
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Families, Bands and Nations
Survival in pre-contact Saskatchewan was based on group efforts in hunting, gathering and fishing. Social units were developed that were both flexible and stable. Flexibility was needed so that the people could react quickly to changing environmental conditions. Band populations increased or decreased depending on the availability of food and resources within any particular area or season. Stability was provided through custom and tradition. When bands grew large, or several bands of one cultural group came together, every band and every person within every band had a role to play within the traditional social organizational set up.
The basic social unit within the cultures of pre-contact Saskatchewan was the family, but family was referred to in an extended sense. It was not uncommon for grandparents, great grandparents, uncles, aunts and cousins to live in several tipis clustered together in one area. Kinship aided in achieving the cooperation necessary for obtaining group objectives and individual survival and prosperity.
A number of large family groups living together formed a band. The average band in pre-contact Saskatchewan had between 125 and 200 people, although this varied considerably. A band was linked politically by having its own chief and council. The members of the band lived together in the same camp and hunted together, sharing the proceeds of the hunt among themselves.
The band, however, was part of a larger organization called a nation. A nation was made up of several bands who were never far from one another. They might come together sometimes for a massive hunting operation, or for war, or for religious ceremonies such as the sun dance. However, as an economic unit the nation was too large to remain together for extended periods of time, given the sometimes unpredictable environmental conditions. One the other hand, the extended family was too small to guarantee regular hunting success or to provide protection for itself from enemies. Thus, the band was the most important unit to which individuals belonged.
The Traditional Aboriginal Social System
The traditional social systems within the pre-contact cultures of Saskatchewan were all based on a common paradigm in which the group of people, rather than the individual person, was thought to be the most important element of human life. In this way of looking at the world, the survival and harmony of the family and the band mattered more than the prosperity or personal achievements of the individual.
Some Elders state that Aboriginal life span can be broken into three phases-being cared for, preparing to care for, and assuming care for. These phases are not locked to age, but rather to need. Care refers to cultural and spiritual maintenance as well as the fulfillment of physical and emotional needs. The major lessons are that life's great purpose is to help others, and that life is more giving than receiving.
Elders have a status in relation to children. They are responsible for transmitting a worldview reflecting the wisdom of years. It is they who are the keepers of traditions such as naming rituals, initiations and the spiritualism that underlies traditional culture. Their experience, wisdom and patience nurture and shelter the young in their first stages of life.
Like all human societies, the Aboriginal cultures within pre-contact Saskatchewan had some individuals who strove for and did achieve political and economic power and wealth for themselves and their immediate families. However, the community awarded honour and respect to that person only if that person shared power and wealth with the entire group of people.
The person who refused to share with the group often faced the threat of banishment from the group. For many Aboriginal people, the force of the traditional social paradigm was felt to be so great that banishment from the band was considered a fate worse than death. On the other hand, again due to the values and beliefs upon which the social system was based, most people believed that no greater personal happiness and satisfaction could be obtained than being an honoured and respected member of the band. Thus, banishment did not occur very often simply because most pre-contact peoples chose to live according to the traditional social paradigm.
Raising and Educating Children
Traditionally, the upbringing of children within the pre-contact cultures of Saskatchewan was done in a non-authoritarian way. Children were guided in forming and practising appropriate and respectful behaviour but were also allowed to roam freely and discover the world. Parents seldom disciplined their children, believing that they could learn from their mistakes on their own. Nevertheless, parents were very devoted to their children. They taught them the Indian ways, for they believed it was important to preserve their traditions. Parents worked hard to instill a code of ethics in the children that emphasized respect for the Creator, for Elders, for nature and for oneself.
The responsibility of parenting was shared by the extended family. Aunts, uncles and grandparents all contributed to bringing up a child. If a child's parents died, he/she would be quickly adopted by other family members. When bands came together for ceremonies or hunting purposes, children could form lasting friendships. It was common for a child to live for a year or more with a friend from another band.
Children enjoyed a variety of games similar to those played by children today. Ice skating was made possible by strapping rib bones to the bottom of moccasins. Shinny, a form of hockey, was popular in summer and winter. Balls of various sizes were used for many different games.
Young males were taught to hunt by their male relatives at an early age. They were given small bows and arrows and were taken out by their older male relatives to hunt birds and small animals. They were shown how to track animals and were taught the various behaviour patterns of each species. They were shown how to skin the animals they brought down, and how to cut up the meat for packing it back to camp.
As the young males grew older their fathers, uncles and other relatives took them on buffalo, deer and moose hunts where they singled out calves and brought them down. The young male who killed his first calf was celebrated by the entire camp and his name was proclaimed by the camp herald. By the time he had reached his early teens he was ready for the hunting of adult buffalo, moose and deer.
Of course, not all young males showed an aptitude for hunting. As children grew, they were watched carefully by their parents for any signs of special talents and attributes that could be nurtured and developed for the benefit of the family and the band. For example, a child who showed some ability in creating things out of various materials would be guided by the adults toward the skill of canoe building or as a tool and weapons maker. Depending on the child's interests and aptitudes, he or she could become an apprentice to an adult specializing in the area the child showed progress in. As well, a child who showed interest in spiritual matters and displayed special concern for the community might be encouraged to study under the guidance and supervision of a medicine person, in preparation for a life as the healer or spiritual advisor. In either case, the child and the child's parents had to request formally an apprenticeship. In most cases the child was accepted for training.
Young females received training in domestic chores from their mothers, aunts and grandmothers. They were taught to make toys that reflected the daily household items used by their parents, such as cooking paunches, bedding materials, tipis, etc. Along with this they were encouraged to play "house" and were guided by their older female relatives in developing the skills necessary to keep a household running smoothly.
All young females were taught the basic skills involved in making moccasins, dresses and other items of clothing worn by men and women. However, those who displayed an unusually high aptitude for creating such items were encouraged to further their talents and skills by becoming an apprentice to adult women specializing in the area in which the young woman showed a talent.
Young women also learned the art of quill and bead decoration from their older female relatives. Just as the young men were encouraged to be providers, the young women were taught that they must be industrious. Both young men and women were constantly reminded that the future survival of the family and the entire group depended on their learning and remembering the ways, beliefs and values of their people.
Gender Roles
Men and women played complementary roles within the daily lifestyles of the pre-contact cultures of Saskatchewan. In hunting, men obtained the game while women processed it into edible food items and usable technological products. In gathering, women obtained the plants and fruits, while men were responsible for trading the processed and surplus goods with other groups.
Although social pressures were quite strong upon women to content themselves with the general role of "housewife" it was not uncommon for some women to acquire positions of leadership usually reserved only for men. Certain oral historical traditions of the Aboriginal cultures within Saskatchewan tell of individual women who acquired honour and respect as religious or military leaders. Though men were the usual decision makers within each band, they recognized the fact that any decisions they made affecting the people as a whole could only be enacted as long as the women were in agreement with such decisions.
Storytelling
An important part of traditional social life, and a major form of entertainment and education, was storytelling. Aboriginal children were constantly told of the many adventures of past generations. They would meet with the Elders around the fire and hear over and over again the legends and stories of great cultural heroes. The storytellers would use suspense and animation to hold their listeners' attention. Storytelling was a highly developed art form and storytellers took pride in their ability.
The stories were not merely to entertain. Almost every band had at least one historian who believed that passing down the great Indian traditions was a sacred duty. Since no written records were kept, Aboriginal history had to be remembered and transmitted orally. This was so important that certain children who demonstrated ability as storytellers would be taken aside by band historians and told the stories over and over again until they memorized them. It was a matter of great pride that the stories be passed down exactly as they had been received, with no details added and none taken away. Such accuracy showed respect for their ancestors and the Creator.
Population
Estimates from 1842 place the population of the Nakota at a little more than 3,000. An 1835 estimate placed the Plains Cree population at 4,000. In the early to mid 1700s the Dene were estimated at 3,500. The total number of Dakota living in Canada and the United States in the mid 1800s was estimated at 25,000. Perhaps 1,000 Dakota at most ever lived in Canada prior to the late 1800s.
There was never more than a handful of Saulteaux bands living in Saskatchewan, their traditional territories being located in the western Great lakes area. Perhaps only 500 to 1,000 Saulteaux have ever lived in Saskatchewan.
During the pre-contact period population sizes within the nations were probably relatively stable. Births and deaths probably occurred at relatively small and near-equal rates, with births outnumbering deaths slightly. Unlike other areas in the pre-contact Americas, populations within pre-contact Saskatchewan were relatively light in number and extremely scattered.
Location
For the most part, the Dene are located in the northern third of Saskatchewan; the Woodland Cree in the southern part of the northern third and in the northern part of the central third of the province; the Plains Cree in the central and southern thirds of the province; the Nakota, Saulteaux and the Dakota in "pockets" within the southern third of the province.
The Economy: Hunting and Gathering
Saskatchewan cultures before the fur trade were generally economically stable. Wealth, property, ownership and profit were concepts that were interpreted in a much different way prior to the arrival of Europeans into Saskatchewan.
The quantity and quality of resources available to pre-contact Aboriginals determined the economic systems that developed within their cultures. Prior to the arrival of Europeans, "making a living" within pre-contact Saskatchewan was centered upon hunting, gathering and fishing.
Developing effectiveness and efficiency in hunting and gathering was an extremely demanding but necessary task for the pre-contact peoples. As hunters and gatherers, they needed to learn continually about the ever- changing climatic and geographic conditions within the environment. They also needed to be constantly aware of animal behaviours and fluctuating plant and animal populations.
As much as the pre-contact peoples developed and depended upon a group-centred lifestyle, as hunter-gatherers they also had to rely upon individuality and self-reliance for their efforts to be successful. Seasonal harvests of fish, rice, moose and buffalo were planned and occurred at regular intervals and involved all members of a particular group. However, on a daily basis hunting and gathering most often depended upon individual skill and expertise. Whether or not the whole group or just a few individuals were involved, hunting and gathering as a lifestyle required flexibility and the ability to react quickly to ever-changing and sometimes unpredictable environmental conditions.
Source: Native Studies: A Curriculum Guide for Grade 10. Saskatchewan Education, 1991.
Buffalo Narrows is a community in northern Saskatchewan with a population of approximately 1400. Surrounded by lakes and forests, it lies at the south end of Lake Churchill. The town received the name Buffalo Narrows because it is located on a narrow piece of land that early Indians could use as a bottleneck through which to drive the buffalo. It is a progressive settlement and serves as the service centre for the region. There are several businesses, provincial government offices, a weather station and a school. The Aboriginal people in the community are primarily Cree, Chipewyan and Métis.
Prior to 1990, the residents of Buffalo Narrows had no access to the financial services that people who live in the rest of Saskatchewan take for granted. There was no bank to deposit money. There was no place to obtain a loan. Nowhere could you purchase a Registered Retirement Savings Plan. There were none of these ordinary banking services available in Buffalo Narrows. In fact, the nearest financial institution was 250 kilometers south, in Meadow Lake. The only financial service available was cheque cashing, provided by the Northern Store (formerly the Hudson Bay Company). Local residents began searching for a financial institution that would be willing to locate in Buffalo Narrows. The banks were not interested-they said that the community was too small and too remote. The people of Buffalo Narrows needed to find another solution to their problem. They decided they would have to act on their own. They needed financial services, so they would build their own bank, a credit union.
The community formed a committee to begin the difficult task of starting their own credit union. They learned they would need to build community support. They had to encourage people to promise to deposit their money to the credit union before the credit union was even opened. The people had to say that they would support the future credit union or it would not have a good chance of surviving. This took a lot of hard work and effort.
In January 1990, North West Credit Union opened its doors. The credit union became a reality. Over the years, the business has prospered. It now provides financial services to more than 1500 members, who live not only in Buffalo Narrows, but also in La Loche and Beauval, communities more than 100 kilometers away. With loans from the credit union, several new businesses have been started, including three sawmills, a logging operation, a restaurant, a confectionery and a craft store. These new businesses have generated more than 50 jobs and over $1 million in economic activity in a community with high unemployment and high rates of poverty.
Over 90% of the members of the credit union are aboriginal people. Members are able to receive service in their native language. North West Credit Union hires staff who speak Cree and Dene. The credit union provides seminars to members in basic banking skills because prior to the credit union, most people in Buffalo Narrows had never had a bank account.
North West Credit Union plays an integral part in the social and cultural activities of the community. Whenever possible, the credit union donates resources (human, physical or financial) to support community initiatives. The credit union has provided assistance to the local Friendship Centre, minor sports and school activities. It has also served as a collection depot for community fund-raising activities. Each year the credit union selects one community group to focus its fund-raising efforts. Often the group selected is involved with children, such as the local day-care or pre-school. A popular fund-raising activity is the purchase of calendars, in which one dollar from each calendar sold is donated to the local group. A very successful project that the credit union undertook in December 1998 was Santa's Workshop. The credit union collected gifts for children. Members could donate one dollar and add their name to the list of Santa's Helpers.
North West Credit Union faces many challenges, specifically related to its remote location. It provides members with basic financial services, such as deposits, cheque-cashing, loans, term deposits and RRSPs. However, members would like additional services, such as access to an automated teller. Providing this service would be extremely expensive given that Buffalo Narrows is located so far away from any major business centre.
Through the building of their own credit union, the people of Buffalo Narrows have demonstrated their ability to meet successfully a community need. They have shown that with hard work and determination anything is possible when ordinary people work together.
Source: North West Credit Union, Box 310, Buffalo Narrows, Saskatchewan. Web site: http://www.sasked.gov.sk.ca/schools/twin_lakes/village.htlm
"Cooperative associations represent the primary economic institutions of the aboriginal people of the Northwest Territories. They are also the only aboriginally controlled economic organizations that have provided a structure for aboriginal people of Inuit, Dene and Métis ancestry to work together for the betterment of all groups. They are consistent with our traditional values and have provided a viable means for achieving financial independence."
William Lyall, President, Arctic Cooperatives Limited
Presentation to the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples
The Inuit, Dene and Métis peoples of Canada's North have sustained themselves for thousands of years. They have lived in harmony with the land that has supplied them with all they have needed to live. The land has helped to define the society, culture and traditions of Aboriginal people are a people in transition.
During the 1950s the Canadian government resettled many of Canada's Aboriginal people living in the North. Some were sent from smaller centres to larger centres. Others were induced to settle in remote areas in the High Arctic, where no one had lived for many years. The government undertook this resettlement project for a number of reasons, however, primarily in order more easily to administer the people and provide them with services. This was easier if the people all lived in permanent settlements. In the new communities, the government provided subsidized housing, a health centre, a school, an RCMP detachment, an airport and a Hudson's Bay trading post. These people, who had previously lived off the land by hunting and fishing, were now grouped in communities in numbers often exceeding the area's natural resources. They rapidly became dependent on government assistance.
Only recently, through land claim agreements, have the Aboriginal people of the North begun to regain some control of the land. With the recent establishment of Nunavut, Inuit people have control of their own territorial government. Gradually, the people of the North are beginning to take control of the forces that have been transforming their society.
One of the most successful ways the Aboriginal people have been able to participate in the economy of the North, has been through the formation of local cooperative organizations. The first cooperatives in the Northwest Territories were incorporated during the sixties. These were primarily community-based consumer cooperatives that provided community members with basic services such as groceries, and employment opportunities. Profits produced by the cooperatives remained in the community. For example, Koomiut Coop operates the only store in Pelly Bay. The Coop also runs a small hotel, purchases carvings for sale in the South and operates a heavy equipment contracting business. It provides agency services for the telephone, the airline and petroleum delivery. It employs approximately half of the adult population; only two employees are non-Aboriginal.
In 1981, the cooperatives in the North formed Arctic Cooperatives Limited (ACL). This new organization provided the coops with a variety of services, such as accounting, marketing, purchasing, training and management.
Most Canadians are familiar with the unique form and designs of Inuit art. Not commercially produced until the 1950s, Inuit art quickly received international attention. Today, almost all Inuit art is produced by local artisans and marketed by their community coop and Arctic Coops Limited.
Operating a business in the North is like nowhere else in Canada. Communities are small, remote and often not accessible by road. Many communities that are located along the coast receive supplies only once a year by the sea. The only financial institutions are located in major centres, hundreds and sometimes thousands of kilometers away. A priority for many communities in the North is to find a way to provide themselves with financial services. Many are considering starting their own credit unions.
An exciting new initiative of cooperatives in the North is the construction of a high-speed digital communications network, using cooperative cable TV systems. This new technology has applications for tele-medicine, distance education and improved access to the information highway. Innovation and service are at the forefront for cooperatives in the North. Many are entering the hotel business and building new retail stores.
Sources: Lyall, W. "Presentation to the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples." Discussion Paper 7;
The NWT Co-operative Model for Aboriginally Owned and Controlled Enterprises. 1993; and
McMillan, A.D. Native Peoples and Cultures of Canada. Vancouver: Douglas & McIntyre Ltd., 1995.
1. What is the name and purpose of the organization?
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2. When and where was it established?
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3. How is the organization structured?
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4. What are some of the unique services the organization(s) is providing its members?
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5. List a minimum of three accomplishments of the organization(s).
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6. What are some of the challenges facing the organization(s), specifically related to its location?
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Research the issues that your group has selected. Complete the following chart.
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The Aboriginal peoples of pre-contact Saskatchewan developed governmental systems strongly based on their spiritual beliefs and values.
All persons within the group were considered accountable to the community and to the Creator for their actions; hence, an elaborate set of laws and law enforcement were not necessary. On the other hand, every cultural group did devise its own set of fundamental laws and traditional punishments for the breaking of those laws. Oral historians within the groups had to remember exactly the traditional laws handed down from the Ancestors, including the circumstances in which the laws had been applied previously.
Unlike other societies, the ultimate punishment for a law-breaker within the Indian pre-contact cultures was not death but banishment. The threat of this punishment, and the shame and humiliation attached to it, was so strong that banishment did not occur very often.
To uphold the group's laws, various men's societies were given the responsibility (usually on a yearly basis) to act as policing units within the bands. In times of war, these societies also functioned as units of soldiers.
Chiefs
Chiefs were highly respected for their acts of bravery, their demonstrations of leadership ability, and their dedication to the community. A candidate for chieftainship had to be a proven leader in hunting and war. He had to demonstrate a concern for the welfare of the community and a willingness to sacrifice himself for it. Although his sacrifices and bravery were usually most noted in war, once he became chief war ceased to be his main concern. As chief, his prime concern became promoting peace and harmony within his band, and among other bands and cultural groups.
Since the chief had no actual authority or power, no one was bound to obey his word; he had to depend on his influence. A chief already wielded considerable influence because of the respect others had for him, but he could gain even more influence by acting wisely as a negotiator and mediator.
In most cases, men occupied the governmental positions within the pre-contact cultures of Saskatchewan. But since a leader, based upon the cultural paradigm, was accountable to all group members, women had an important role in giving advice and direction to the leaders. The oral traditions of some of the cultural groups indicated that women sometimes became the governmental leaders of certain bands.
Certain bands treated the leader or leaders as supreme power-holding individuals. In these cases, the leader or leaders were allowed to hold a "privileged" position within the band. They had the first choice in selecting campsites for themselves and their families, were allowed to take the best hides and choicest meat gained from the band's hunting expeditions, and had the right to select the best material items as well as horses and other things gained in trade with other Indian groups.
For the most part, the general social and political paradigms of the cultures in pre-contact Saskatchewan were based on the belief that the greatest leader was that person who thought of others' needs first. Thus, for most bands the leader or leaders usually had little personal desire for material things. These type of leaders usually would select the best hides, choicest meat, and finest horses but then would give these things away to the band members least able to obtain such things for themselves (usually widows, orphans and the Elders).
Other Leaders
In addition to the leaders and their advisors, other band members filled roles quite important to the overall governmental and social organization. Individuals, especially knowledgeable about the natural environment and the behaviour patterns of the buffalo, moose, and other animals might become the band's scouts and trackers.
Other individuals showed certain gifts for making various crafts and household and camp utensils and so would become the band's "work" men and women.
An especially valued position was that of camp crier. Usually, the camp crier was an honoured Elder and war veteran. He would have the duty of spreading the news of the day, including council decisions, throughout the camp.
Some of the larger bands (particularly within the Cree and Dakota cultural groups) developed elaborate systems of governmental organization. For example, within an especially large band (over 300 members), or whenever the entire cultural group gathered together for a few weeks or a month, the core of governmental leadership might include "head men" or chiefs for the different areas of daily life. Thus, there might be a political leader or chief, a military leader apart from the political leader, and perhaps a third person who would be the religious leader. In effect, a single large band could have three leaders (political, military, religious). As well, an especially good hunter could be selected as the band's hunting leader, while the most highly honoured and respected woman within the band could be chosen by the women was their social leader and as their spokesperson to the other leaders.
The Band Council
Assisting the chief of a small band, or the chiefs of a larger band, were various advisors who formed the Council of the band. These advisors informed the chief of all issues or affairs affecting the band and needing to be dealt with. Beyond giving advice, however, the Council could hold back or even withdraw its support from the leader or leaders who refused to listen to it.
Council operated on a belief in unanimous consent. Whenever an issue or concern needing a decision was raised, every member of the Council was entitled to express an opinion. The spokesperson for the women of the band also put forward her views and the women's views on the matter.
After all opinions had been presented and discussed, a majority decision would be reached and all members of the band were expected to abide by the decision. Individuals or families not in agreement with such a decision were allowed the freedom to dissent. More often than not, if these individuals or families were strongly opposed to the group's decision, they would break away from the band to join another one or, if the dissenting group was large enough, to perhaps create its own band. The "break up" or splitting apart of a band due to disagreements based upon differences in opinion and/or dissatisfaction with chief and Council decisions was avoided at all costs. To keep the possibility of disrupting group harmony to a minimum, issues were discussed informally and before Council would meet, if at all possible. Emergencies, such as the immediate threat of war with another group, required a much shorter time period of discussion and negotiation.
Although the leaders did not have the right to force anyone to do what he/she did not want to do, the leaders could and did use every bit of persuasion and influence they had in trying to get all band members to agree on issues and objectives. Only through earning the respect and trust of band members could a leader ever reach and hold the rank of headman or chief.
Diplomacy
Councils were responsible for conducting diplomatic activities. Formal treaties and alliances were established. Elders sometimes arranged inter-nation marriages, child placements and adoptions. Trade often took place on a band to band level. Alliances were based upon political, economic and social components.
Every cultural group within pre-contact Saskatchewan occupied a traditional hunting territory well-known to the other cultural groups. Every band within each cultural group occupied a smaller portion of this traditional territory. Although a cultural group's territory belonged to that group, and a band's territory belonged to the band, private ownership of any plot of land was an unsuitable concept within the traditional way of looking at the world and the human place within the world.
It cannot be denied, however, that some of the pre-contact cultural groups did attempt to increase the size of their territories of occupance, sometimes at the cost of entering into hostilities with other cultural groups that were using the land in question. For example, during the 17th ad 18th centuries in Saskatchewan, the Gros Ventres people occupied the southern most part of the province as part of their traditional territory. By the early part of the 19th century, however, the Nakota and Plains Cree had allied themselves and forced the Gros Ventres further south into Montana.
The central and northern Cree people, along with the Saulteaux, came together to force the Dene people from central Saskatchewan into the northern most part of the province, again during the same approximate time period.
Territorial competition increased within areas in which resources were scarce. In general, in areas where resources were relatively abundant, cultural groups tended to "live and let live" and competition for resources was minimal.
Source: Native Studies: A Curriculum Guide for Grade 10. Saskatchewan Education, 1991.
(The following excerpts are from a speech made by Premier Tony Penikett of the Yukon at a constitutional conference on October 11, 1990.)
Basic Principles
Our principles are few but fundamental.
1. Aboriginal self-government is a right that must be included in the Constitution of Canada.
2. Canada is obligated to negotiate self-government agreements with each First Nation.
3. Canada is obligated to provide adequate resources for First Nations to carry out their agreements, whether through exclusive or shared institutions.
4. Aboriginal title must be recognized and entrenched, not extinguished, on Aboriginal lands.
These principles have guided our negotiations in the Yukon, and I believe they can serve Canadian governments and First Nations well as we work to come to grips with Aboriginal self-government in the months and years ahead.
Principle #1: Aboriginal self-government is a right that must be included in the Constitution of Canada.
Aboriginal self-government must be recognized as a right, to be exercised by First Nations at a time of their own choosing. This is the position of the Yukon Government, and I strongly urge other governments to accept it as well.
I know that many non-Aboriginal people argue against recognizing self-government as a right. Included are a number of leading political figures, including First Ministers.
I urge them to rethink their positions. The relationship between First Nations and governments today in Canada is abysmal. A new relationship founded on respect is essential. In my view, there will be no progress on Aboriginal political, social, and economic development until First Nations are recognized as Nations-within Canada and the Canadian Constitution-for whom self-government is a right.
The right to self-government, and the exercise of that right, must take place within the Canadian constitutional framework. This means not only that First Nations must recognize and accept that they are part of Canada, but also that Canada must recognize that Aboriginal self-government agreements must be part of the Constitution of Canada.
Principle #2: Canada is obligated to negotiate self-government agreements with each First Nation.
There must be a constitutionally entrenched obligation on the part of Canada and the provinces to negotiate self-government agreements. Far too many provincial premiers and other Canadian political leaders have simply refused events to negotiate self-government, thereby making it impossible for self-government ever to become a reality.
Furthermore, self-government agreements must be negotiated with each First Nation. It is futile to try to make one set of rules for all First Nations across the country, and to try to define First Nations as having federal, provincial or municipal type powers. In fact, they will have different combinations of powers in each region of Canada, shaped to meet local needs.
Principle #3: Canada is obligated to provide adequate resources for First Nations to carry out their agreements, whether through exclusive or shared institutions.
Self-government will only be possible if First Nations have an adequate land and resource base and adequate financial and fiscal arrangements. Again, in the Yukon we have, through our claims agreement, recognized that land resources are essential.
Fiscal arrangements have not been addressed to any substantial degree in the Yukon agreement. But it is self-evident, I believe, that Canada will not meet its fiduciary (financial) responsibility if it does not guarantee First nations adequate financial resources through equalization and other fiscal arrangement.
All sides must recognize that First Nations must and will have exclusive jurisdiction over some matters, such as internal political processes and structures, the use and management of Aboriginal lands and activities on such lands, and other matters agreed upon in negotiations.
This area of exclusive jurisdiction must be constitutionally protected, so that governments cannot arbitrarily interfere in the internal affairs of First Nations. In other words, entrenched....
Areas of joint or shared jurisdiction must also be identified, and the principles for such sharing stated clearly.
I think these powers can be shared in practical ways, just as existing governments work together in areas such as revenue collection, environmental standards, or social services.
I would expect that the areas of exclusive and shared jurisdiction will, to some degree, vary according to the views and wishes of individual First Nations. It will be important that these differences be accommodated and that agreements on self-government reflect local community and regional differences in First Nations.
Principle #4: Aboriginal title must be recognized and entrenched, not extinguished, on Aboriginal lands.
Aboriginal title must be recognized and continued on retained lands, and there should be no demand for the extinguishment of Aboriginal rights on these lands. An insistence on such extinguishment is neither fair nor realistic.
The Process of Negotiation
All sides must bring to the table some fundamental prerequisites:
· First, a commitment to the negotiating process, rather than legal or political direct action.
· Beyond that, the patience and strength and courage to stay at the table when the going gets rough. The Yukon has seen land claim negotiations for 17 years which, in my mind, is too long. But our current agreement took five years to reach, and we still have to negotiate concrete settlements with individual First Nations.
· Finally, the vision to see defining Aboriginal self-government will be an ongoing process, that there is no magic moment when it is all done and can be taken for granted. Like Confederation itself, these issues will be debated and reformed as long as there is a Canada.
All the qualities-commitment, patience, understanding and vision-are fundamental to successful negotiations. But, as I said before, it can be done: in the North, in B.C., in Quebec, anywhere in Canada.
Source: Connecting Canada: A Resource for Canadian Students. Canadian Education Association: Toronto. 1992, pp. 94-95. Reprinted with permission of the Toronto District School Board.
