When students are involved in a variety of reading activities (e.g., literature circles, silent reading, author studies) they develop an understanding of word patterns and increase their vocabulary. As well, through a variety of regular, purposeful writing experiences (e.g., letters, stories, poems, response journals), students develop an awareness of the need for standard spelling to communicate their ideas and information accurately.

Engaging regularly in writing experiences promotes spelling growth, and teachers will find many opportunities within the writing program to provide both formal and informal spelling instruction. It is important to help students develop strategies for proofreading their own and others' writing during the editing stage of their writing processes. During the editing stage, when it is appropriate to focus on correcting spelling, teachers can help students to discover errors by encouraging them to:

• read their work out loud to themselves or a peer
  
• have a peer read their writing and underline misspellings
  
• during first proofreading underline or highlight words they think may be misspelled
  
• try misspelled words in different ways, or check with a peer or resource book after identifying misspelled words
  
• keep dictionaries and their own personalized spelling lists nearby during proofreading
  
• be aware of the types of errors they make most often and proofread specifically for these
  
• read from the bottom to the top of the page so that they focus on individual words rather than meaning as they proofread
  
• use computer spell checks to shorten the process of proofreading, being aware of the limitations of such programs (e.g., typographical errors such as though instead of thought, and homophones such as their and there will be missed by a spell checker).

Encourage students to expand their vocabulary and their spelling knowledge by taking risks with unfamiliar words, rather than simply sticking to the known. Involve students in a variety of word study activities (e.g., word derivatives, patterns, rhymes) that are clearly related to their own reading and writing experiences and spelling needs. Teaching students to use mnemonics and other strategies can be fun and beneficial. As well, games such as Scrabble, Spill and Spell, and Probe immerse students in word creation, vocabulary development, and problem solving.

Continuous assessment of students' written work provides information about their spelling knowledge and strategies, and determines the instruction needed. Assessment or evaluation of students' spelling growth can be done through peer checks of personal spelling lists. Encourage students to review their lists and test each other on a weekly or bi-weekly basis. Have individual students plot their growth by keeping a list of new words, rules, and strategies learned.

Instruction is most effectively provided in the context of students' writing through mini-lessons. These formal or informal instructional sessions should be based on student needs as determined through observation. Mini-lessons involve 3-10 minutes of direct instruction with opportunities for students to interact and participate. They should make clear connections to students' own reading and writing experiences. Instruction may be pre-planned or spontaneous and may be conducted with students as individuals, as a small group, or as an entire class, depending upon student needs and abilities.

Language texts and commercial spelling programs can be useful tools for teachers as sources of information for mini-lessons and for students as sources of information about spelling rules, patterns, and strategies. Lessons in texts need not be followed sequentially, nor is it necessary to cover all lessons. Select the lessons that address students' spelling needs and use them as starting points for reviewing or learning knowledge and strategies.

Types of common errors include:

• omission of letters (often silent letters)
  
• inattention to word meaning (no for know)
  
• letter reversals (becuase for because)
  
• phonetic spelling or mispronunciation (Febyuary for February)
  
• confusing past tense marker ed with related homophones (e.g., guest with guessed)
  
• patterns related to doubling consonants (e.g., fadding for fading)
  
• irregular letter combinations (prison for prism)
  
• inattention to word root/base or source
  
• transfer of speech patterns from another language or dialect.

The Spelling Error Analysis Chart that follows is useful for keeping a running record of the type of spelling errors students make so that appropriate instruction can be provided.

Students' individual or personalized spelling lists will contain both teacher-selected and student-selected words. All students will have some words in common in their lists and other words that are relevant only to themselves. Individual students' spelling lists may be written in a separate notebook, in a section of their language arts binder, or on file cards. Teachers and students may select words for study from a variety of sources including:

• words students misspell in their own written work
  
• words about which students are curious
  
• words identified by the teacher as ones students need to know (e.g., developmentally appropriate)
  
• words relevant to a specific topic, theme, activity, or subject.

Teachers should attend to each student's individual spelling list when assessing written work. As well, teachers may structure regular class time for peer testing of the words on individual spelling lists. The results of these assessments will provide data about students' growth and about their instructional needs.

In an integrated program it is important for students to learn and apply spelling strategies within the context of their own writing. See the charts that follow for a list of spelling strategies that Middle Level students should be able to use. As well, they should be able to:

• apply knowledge of spelling rules (e.g., i before e except after c gives the e sound)
  
• apply knowledge of common word patterns (sound, function, meaning)
  
• relate sounds in unfamiliar words to similar sounds in familiar words
  
• use memory devices (e.g., mnemonics)
  
• visualize (Does it look right?)
  
• apply knowledge of syllabication (e.g., carefully pronouncing words and syllables), pluralization (e.g., adding s, es), root words, prefixes, and suffixes
  
• identify misspellings in their own and others' written work
  
• proofread during the editing stage (e.g., during drafting have students underline words that they need to check)
  
• consult dictionaries, computer spell checks, and other resources.

It is helpful to set up a structure of classroom routines with regard to spelling practices and expectations because routines encourage independence. When students become familiar with how their class day is structured, most will be able to work independently and co-operatively within the parameters set. Teachers will need to model routines and expectations, and provide time for students to learn and use them. Some considerations regarding routines and expectations include:

• use of classroom resource material
  
• use of individual, personal word lists (e.g., notebook, file cards)
  
• selection of words for study (e.g., words to be identified by the teacher and those to be identified by the student)
  
• proofreading and editing procedures
  
• peer testing, using individual word lists
  
• scheduled and impromptu conferencing
  
• regular writing time.

Some useful resources that students should have access to and know how to use are dictionaries, language texts, and thesauri. By placing appropriate resources on a classroom shelf for student use and by referring to these resources themselves, teachers model their use and usefulness. As well, students may find it helpful to have available visual aids such as posters that contain word lists, spelling rules, patterns, and strategies. Teachers should involve students in creating a variety of their own resources including posters and personal dictionaries, when appropriate.

There is a place for standard spelling in final drafts prepared for audiences, but it is not necessary that every word in rough drafts or personal writing be spelled in the standard way, particularly if such attention to "correct" spelling limits the writer's ideas in initial drafts. During composing, students should be encouraged to let their ideas flow freely and to use "temporary" spellings in early drafts to allow them to get their ideas down. This encourages them to use new and unfamiliar words. They can proofread and correct for standard spelling during the editing stage of the writing process. The more that students write for real purposes and audiences, in and beyond the classroom, the more motivated they will be to attend to their spelling.

Because spelling is one of the most visible language skills, it is often used as a yardstick by which parents and others judge students' language abilities. Therefore, it is important that parents are made aware of the developmental nature of learning to spell and how spelling instruction is being provided within the English language arts program. Through regular meetings, parent nights, and newsletters, teachers can keep parents posted about their children's progress and make suggestions about what parents can do to help their children become competent spellers.

Supporting Weak Spellers

Students who are competent spellers have internalized correct spelling to the extent that they seldom have to spend any conscious effort on the actual words and they can focus on the meaning that they are trying to convey. However, for a small percentage of students, the norm of the developmental process of learning to spell may not apply and they often must put so much effort into forming each word that they are unable to focus on whether they have communicated their ideas effectively. For those students, teachers may have to plan remedial instruction and increase the intensity of that instruction.

Teachers can identify weak spellers by analyzing their error patterns and subsequently identifying their instructional needs. The following steps may be useful when analyzing students' spelling errors.

• Collect numerous samples of the student's spelling errors from a variety of sources (e.g., the student's own writing, personal spelling lists, dictated tests) which will provide the diagnostic information.
  
• Interview the student to determine the cause of those errors (e.g., phonetic difficulties, inability to visualize, lack of knowledge about word patterns or spelling rules).
  
• Classify the errors, sorting them into types and frequencies.
  
• Select instructional strategies to remediate the student's spelling deficits (e.g., phonetic information, spelling rules or patterns).

Stages	Instructional Strategies	Grade Levels
Stage I: Pre-phonetic Spellers use random strings of letter-like forms and scribbles to represent message use a few letters repeatedly mix upper and lower case letters, but show preference for upper case write randomly on page show no understanding of sound-symbol relationship produce text not readable by others	read aloud and often display words in students' environment and label objects/pictures create big books and picture dictionaries use dictations and experience charts have students chant and choral read familiar stories and dictations have students categorize words by common patterns develop word bags or banks
Stage II: Phonetic Spellers are aware of sound-symbol relationships represent all essential sound features of a word use blends, consonant digraphs, and long vowel patterns have some sight words leave spaces between words	have students develop word families for basic vowel sounds in familiar words discuss and have students practise identifying the spelling patterns and sounds heard in words have students identify familiar words with one and two syllables use the cloze procedure with familiar words use word bags or banks
Stage III: Transitional Spellers use basic word conventions and letter sequences begin to use morphological and visual strategies in addition to phonetic information to determine spellings of unfamiliar words demonstrate greater understanding of vowel digraphs, long vowel patterns, diphthongs, and inflectional endings often include all necessary letters in a word, but reverse some use alternate spellings for the same sound in different words, but do not fully understand the conventions that dictate these differences begin to make meaning-spelling connections spell many words correctly	review common consonant and vowel patterns have students sort familiar past-tense words by the ending sound focus on the connection between vowel spelling and spelling changes when adding ing or ed have students do simple word expansion activities encourage and provide opportunities for regular writing have students develop personal word lists have students proofread their own and others' writing have students identify their own problem words have students look for spelling patterns in two, three-, and four-syllable words
Stage IV: Conventional Spellers apply the basic rules of the English language make the meaning-spelling connection extend knowledge of word structures such as affixes, base words, contractions, compound words, and homonyms demonstrate greater accuracy in using silent consonants and in doubling consonants before adding suffixes recognize when a word does not "look right" and try alternative spellings learn irregular spelling patterns spell most words correctly and quickly	review basic knowledge from transitional stage have students identify their own problem words have students develop personal spelling lists have students proofread their own and others' writing during the writing process create meaning maps with words that have derivations explore common Latin and Greek derivational forms have students combine forms to make nouns or adjectives have students use a variety of resources to assist them have students write regularly
Continued Development: Mature Spellers demonstrate a greater command of an expanding vocabulary often return to a phonetic approach if other strategies fail	have students write regularly and proofread their own and others' writing have students keep personal word lists provide formal and informal mini-lessons to individuals and groups as needed to review and refine spelling knowledge and strategies

Growth in the ability to use standard spellings of words is developmental. It occurs continually and gradually over time as students' knowledge about word patterns increases, along with their ability to use this knowledge to recognize and construct words. Students should be encouraged to experiment with language and take risks when spelling. Standard spelling is most effectively developed within the context of students' own writing. Instruction should focus on the words that individual students need in order to express themselves precisely and clearly. Individual spelling lists can help students keep track of those words which are of particular difficulty or relevance to them, and new words that appear in specific units of study.

Spelling Knowledge: What Competent Spellers Know

spelling rules, and their generalizations and limitations common word patterns (sound, function, meaning) sound/symbol relationships root words prefixes and suffixes syllabication contractions plurals compound words (with and without hyphens) homonyms synonyms and antonyms silent letters double consonants irregular spellings word families and patterns

Spelling Strategies: What Competent Spellers Do

apply knowledge of spelling rules (e.g., i before e except after c gives the e sound) apply knowledge of common word patterns (sound, function, meaning) relate sounds in unfamiliar words to similar sounds in familiar words use memory devices (e.g., mnemonics) visualize (Does it look right?) compare words to words of similar families and patterns apply knowledge of syllabication (e.g., carefully pronouncing words and syllables), pluralization (e.g., adding s, es), root words, prefixes, and suffixes identify misspellings in own and others' written work keep individual spelling lists of personally relevant words proofread during the editing stage (e.g., during drafting have students underline words that they need to check at the editing stage) consult dictionaries, computer spell checks, and other resources

Spelling Error Analysis