Integrated Language Study

Introduce the language concept (skill or knowledge) using examples from material students are presently listening to or reading, or from students' own speaking or writing.

Provide students with any additional, relevant information about the concept and use more samples, if necessary, to explain further or exemplify the concept.

Provide a brief interactive activity to help students establish relationships between the new skill or knowledge and their current language use. Activities in which students work in pairs or small groups are useful because, as students talk, they clarify their own and others' understanding. Activities should make use of language experiences in which students are currently engaged in order for learning to be relevant (e.g., have students locate examples of compound sentences in the novel they are reading or in their own writing).

Review the major points made during the mini-lesson and record the information with some examples. Post the information in a prominent place in the classroom or have students take brief notes for future reference.

Have students immediately apply the new knowledge or skill in their own speaking, listening, writing, or reading experiences. For example, following a mini-lesson about sentence combining, have students combine several sentences in a draft of their own writing.

Mini-lessons may be taught to the whole class, to small groups, or to individual students, depending upon their assessed needs. The lesson objectives and student needs will determine the type of language study instruction required at any given time. Teachers can identify the language concepts they need to teach by observing students' language use, noting their abilities, and keeping track of the types of errors they make.

Spelling

The ultimate goal of learning how to spell is to develop and extend one's ability and confidence to communicate effectively in writing. Students should be encouraged to experiment with language and take risks in draft writing when spelling unfamiliar words.

Conventional spellings of words have evolved over time and continue to evolve. However, there are standard ways of spelling words so that readers are able to understand what writers mean. Standard spelling is developmental; growth in the ability to use standard spelling occurs continually and gradually as students' knowledge about word patterns and spelling rules increases, along with their ability to apply this knowledge when interpreting and constructing words.

Standard spelling is most effectively developed within the context of students' own writing. Instruction should focus on the words that individual students need in order to express themselves precisely and clearly. Individual spelling and vocabulary lists can help students keep track of those words which are of particular difficulty or relevance to them, and of new words that appear in specific units of study.

Integrated spelling instruction includes a variety of teaching and learning strategies and incorporates spelling instruction into students' daily listening, speaking, reading, and writing processes. Competent spellers have a base of word knowledge, an understanding of word patterns, and a repertoire of strategies from which to select when they attempt to spell an unknown word. As students grow in their knowledge and strategies, they are more willing to take risks to increase the number of words that they can spell correctly and automatically.

Spelling Principles

1. Learning to spell is a developmental process and competence in spelling occurs over time.

Students progress at various rates through a series of stages from pre-phonetic to standard spelling (see the developmental chart in this section). Spelling instruction should help students to recognize that it is acceptable and appropriate to use developmental "temporary" spellings of unknown words as they extend their understanding of standard spelling rules and strategies.

2. Spelling growth is enhanced when instruction is integrated into students' daily language experiences.

Spelling instruction cannot be treated as a separate and isolated subject. Research shows that knowledge and skills are transferred most readily when they are relevant and learned in the context of what the students are striving to achieve. For spelling instruction to be meaningful, it must relate to the students' own reading and writing. When students understand that spelling is a tool for facilitating clearly written communication, they are more motivated to learn to spell in standard ways and appreciate the need to strive for standard spellings of words.

3. Spelling instruction should help students acquire a variety of strategies with which to analyze, remember, and figure out spellings.

Competent spellers use a variety of strategies to help them determine the standard spelling of unfamiliar words (e.g., knowing when to apply spelling rules or patterns, or knowing when and how to use a dictionary). When such strategies become part of their repertoire, students can apply them to their own writing.

4. Assessment and evaluation of spelling should be continuous and have instructional implications.

Assessment of students' spelling knowledge and abilities requires continuous and careful observation by teachers and by the students themselves. Observation checklists, anecdotal notes, and conferences are some ways of gathering and recording students' spelling abilities and knowledge, and their instructional needs. Analysis of written products such as rough drafts, final drafts, and journal entries can provide further information about students' spelling knowledge and strategies (see the chart in this section). Assessment and evaluation should take into consideration the developmental nature of learning to spell by focusing on individual growth over time.

Managing an Integrated Spelling Program

Spelling instruction, in an integrated program, takes place within the context of students' own reading and writing experiences. Instructional needs should be determined through continuous assessment and from the course objectives. It is important that teachers:

When students are involved in a variety of reading activities (e.g., literature circles, silent reading, author studies) they develop an understanding of word patterns and increase their vocabulary. As well, through a variety of regular, purposeful writing experiences (e.g., letters, stories, poems, response journals), students develop an awareness of the need for standard spelling to communicate their ideas and information accurately.

Engaging regularly in writing experiences promotes spelling growth, and teachers will find many opportunities within the writing program to provide both formal and informal spelling instruction. It is important to help students develop strategies for proofreading their own and others' writing during the editing stage of their writing processes. During the editing stage, when it is appropriate to focus on correcting spelling, teachers can help students to discover errors by encouraging them to:

• read their work out loud to themselves or a peer
  
• have a peer read their writing and underline misspellings
  
• during first proofreading underline or highlight words they think may be misspelled
  
• try misspelled words in different ways, or check with a peer or resource book after identifying misspelled words
  
• keep dictionaries and their own personalized spelling lists nearby during proofreading
  
• be aware of the types of errors they make most often and proofread specifically for these
  
• read from the bottom to the top of the page so that they focus on individual words rather than meaning as they proofread
  
• use computer spell checks to shorten the process of proofreading, being aware of the limitations of such programs (e.g., typographical errors such as though instead of thought, and homophones such as their and there will be missed by a spell checker).

Encourage students to expand their vocabulary and their spelling knowledge by taking risks with unfamiliar words, rather than simply sticking to the known. Involve students in a variety of word study activities (e.g., word derivatives, patterns, rhymes) that are clearly related to their own reading and writing experiences and spelling needs. Teaching students to use mnemonics and other strategies can be fun and beneficial. As well, games such as Scrabble, Spill and Spell, and Probe immerse students in word creation, vocabulary development, and problem solving.

Continuous assessment of students' written work provides information about their spelling knowledge and strategies, and determines the instruction needed. Assessment or evaluation of students' spelling growth can be done through peer checks of personal spelling lists. Encourage students to review their lists and test each other on a weekly or bi-weekly basis. Have individual students plot their growth by keeping a list of new words, rules, and strategies learned.

Instruction is most effectively provided in the context of students' writing through mini-lessons. These formal or informal instructional sessions should be based on student needs as determined through observation. Mini-lessons involve 3-10 minutes of direct instruction with opportunities for students to interact and participate. They should make clear connections to students' own reading and writing experiences. Instruction may be pre-planned or spontaneous and may be conducted with students as individuals, as a small group, or as an entire class, depending upon student needs and abilities.

Language texts and commercial spelling programs can be useful tools for teachers as sources of information for mini-lessons and for students as sources of information about spelling rules, patterns, and strategies. Lessons in texts need not be followed sequentially, nor is it necessary to cover all lessons. Select the lessons that address students' spelling needs and use them as starting points for reviewing or learning knowledge and strategies.

Types of common errors include:

• omission of letters (often silent letters)
  
• inattention to word meaning (no for know)
  
• letter reversals (becuase for because)
  
• phonetic spelling or mispronunciation (Febyuary for February)
  
• confusing past tense marker ed with related homophones (e.g., guest with guessed)
  
• patterns related to doubling consonants (e.g., fadding for fading)
  
• irregular letter combinations (prison for prism)
  
• inattention to word root/base or source
  
• transfer of speech patterns from another language or dialect.

The Spelling Error Analysis Chart that follows is useful for keeping a running record of the type of spelling errors students make so that appropriate instruction can be provided.

Students' individual or personalized spelling lists will contain both teacher-selected and student-selected words. All students will have some words in common in their lists and other words that are relevant only to themselves. Individual students' spelling lists may be written in a separate notebook, in a section of their language arts binder, or on file cards. Teachers and students may select words for study from a variety of sources including:

• words students misspell in their own written work
  
• words about which students are curious
  
• words identified by the teacher as ones students need to know (e.g., developmentally appropriate)
  
• words relevant to a specific topic, theme, activity, or subject.

Teachers should attend to each student's individual spelling list when assessing written work. As well, teachers may structure regular class time for peer testing of the words on individual spelling lists. The results of these assessments will provide data about students' growth and about their instructional needs.

In an integrated program it is important for students to learn and apply spelling strategies within the context of their own writing. See the charts that follow for a list of spelling strategies that Middle Level students should be able to use. As well, they should be able to:

• apply knowledge of spelling rules (e.g., i before e except after c gives the e sound)
  
• apply knowledge of common word patterns (sound, function, meaning)
  
• relate sounds in unfamiliar words to similar sounds in familiar words
  
• use memory devices (e.g., mnemonics)
  
• visualize (Does it look right?)
  
• apply knowledge of syllabication (e.g., carefully pronouncing words and syllables), pluralization (e.g., adding s, es), root words, prefixes, and suffixes
  
• identify misspellings in their own and others' written work
  
• proofread during the editing stage (e.g., during drafting have students underline words that they need to check)
  
• consult dictionaries, computer spell checks, and other resources.

It is helpful to set up a structure of classroom routines with regard to spelling practices and expectations because routines encourage independence. When students become familiar with how their class day is structured, most will be able to work independently and co-operatively within the parameters set. Teachers will need to model routines and expectations, and provide time for students to learn and use them. Some considerations regarding routines and expectations include:

• use of classroom resource material
  
• use of individual, personal word lists (e.g., notebook, file cards)
  
• selection of words for study (e.g., words to be identified by the teacher and those to be identified by the student)
  
• proofreading and editing procedures
  
• peer testing, using individual word lists
  
• scheduled and impromptu conferencing
  
• regular writing time.

Some useful resources that students should have access to and know how to use are dictionaries, language texts, and thesauri. By placing appropriate resources on a classroom shelf for student use and by referring to these resources themselves, teachers model their use and usefulness. As well, students may find it helpful to have available visual aids such as posters that contain word lists, spelling rules, patterns, and strategies. Teachers should involve students in creating a variety of their own resources including posters and personal dictionaries, when appropriate.

There is a place for standard spelling in final drafts prepared for audiences, but it is not necessary that every word in rough drafts or personal writing be spelled in the standard way, particularly if such attention to "correct" spelling limits the writer's ideas in initial drafts. During composing, students should be encouraged to let their ideas flow freely and to use "temporary" spellings in early drafts to allow them to get their ideas down. This encourages them to use new and unfamiliar words. They can proofread and correct for standard spelling during the editing stage of the writing process. The more that students write for real purposes and audiences, in and beyond the classroom, the more motivated they will be to attend to their spelling.

Because spelling is one of the most visible language skills, it is often used as a yardstick by which parents and others judge students' language abilities. Therefore, it is important that parents are made aware of the developmental nature of learning to spell and how spelling instruction is being provided within the English language arts program. Through regular meetings, parent nights, and newsletters, teachers can keep parents posted about their children's progress and make suggestions about what parents can do to help their children become competent spellers.

Supporting Weak Spellers

Students who are competent spellers have internalized correct spelling to the extent that they seldom have to spend any conscious effort on the actual words and they can focus on the meaning that they are trying to convey. However, for a small percentage of students, the norm of the developmental process of learning to spell may not apply and they often must put so much effort into forming each word that they are unable to focus on whether they have communicated their ideas effectively. For those students, teachers may have to plan remedial instruction and increase the intensity of that instruction.

Teachers can identify weak spellers by analyzing their error patterns and subsequently identifying their instructional needs. The following steps may be useful when analyzing students' spelling errors.

• Collect numerous samples of the student's spelling errors from a variety of sources (e.g., the student's own writing, personal spelling lists, dictated tests) which will provide the diagnostic information.
  
• Interview the student to determine the cause of those errors (e.g., phonetic difficulties, inability to visualize, lack of knowledge about word patterns or spelling rules).
  
• Classify the errors, sorting them into types and frequencies.
  
• Select instructional strategies to remediate the student's spelling deficits (e.g., phonetic information, spelling rules or patterns).

Stages	Instructional Strategies	Grade Levels
Stage I: Pre-phonetic Spellers use random strings of letter-like forms and scribbles to represent message use a few letters repeatedly mix upper and lower case letters, but show preference for upper case write randomly on page show no understanding of sound-symbol relationship produce text not readable by others	read aloud and often display words in students' environment and label objects/pictures create big books and picture dictionaries use dictations and experience charts have students chant and choral read familiar stories and dictations have students categorize words by common patterns develop word bags or banks
Stage II: Phonetic Spellers are aware of sound-symbol relationships represent all essential sound features of a word use blends, consonant digraphs, and long vowel patterns have some sight words leave spaces between words	have students develop word families for basic vowel sounds in familiar words discuss and have students practise identifying the spelling patterns and sounds heard in words have students identify familiar words with one and two syllables use the cloze procedure with familiar words use word bags or banks
Stage III: Transitional Spellers use basic word conventions and letter sequences begin to use morphological and visual strategies in addition to phonetic information to determine spellings of unfamiliar words demonstrate greater understanding of vowel digraphs, long vowel patterns, diphthongs, and inflectional endings often include all necessary letters in a word, but reverse some use alternate spellings for the same sound in different words, but do not fully understand the conventions that dictate these differences begin to make meaning-spelling connections spell many words correctly	review common consonant and vowel patterns have students sort familiar past-tense words by the ending sound focus on the connection between vowel spelling and spelling changes when adding ing or ed have students do simple word expansion activities encourage and provide opportunities for regular writing have students develop personal word lists have students proofread their own and others' writing have students identify their own problem words have students look for spelling patterns in two, three-, and four-syllable words
Stage IV: Conventional Spellers apply the basic rules of the English language make the meaning-spelling connection extend knowledge of word structures such as affixes, base words, contractions, compound words, and homonyms demonstrate greater accuracy in using silent consonants and in doubling consonants before adding suffixes recognize when a word does not "look right" and try alternative spellings learn irregular spelling patterns spell most words correctly and quickly	review basic knowledge from transitional stage have students identify their own problem words have students develop personal spelling lists have students proofread their own and others' writing during the writing process create meaning maps with words that have derivations explore common Latin and Greek derivational forms have students combine forms to make nouns or adjectives have students use a variety of resources to assist them have students write regularly
Continued Development: Mature Spellers demonstrate a greater command of an expanding vocabulary often return to a phonetic approach if other strategies fail	have students write regularly and proofread their own and others' writing have students keep personal word lists provide formal and informal mini-lessons to individuals and groups as needed to review and refine spelling knowledge and strategies

Growth in the ability to use standard spellings of words is developmental. It occurs continually and gradually over time as students' knowledge about word patterns increases, along with their ability to use this knowledge to recognize and construct words. Students should be encouraged to experiment with language and take risks when spelling. Standard spelling is most effectively developed within the context of students' own writing. Instruction should focus on the words that individual students need in order to express themselves precisely and clearly. Individual spelling lists can help students keep track of those words which are of particular difficulty or relevance to them, and new words that appear in specific units of study.

Spelling Knowledge: What Competent Spellers Know

spelling rules, and their generalizations and limitations common word patterns (sound, function, meaning) sound/symbol relationships root words prefixes and suffixes syllabication contractions plurals compound words (with and without hyphens) homonyms synonyms and antonyms silent letters double consonants irregular spellings word families and patterns

Spelling Strategies: What Competent Spellers Do

apply knowledge of spelling rules (e.g., i before e except after c gives the e sound) apply knowledge of common word patterns (sound, function, meaning) relate sounds in unfamiliar words to similar sounds in familiar words use memory devices (e.g., mnemonics) visualize (Does it look right?) compare words to words of similar families and patterns apply knowledge of syllabication (e.g., carefully pronouncing words and syllables), pluralization (e.g., adding s, es), root words, prefixes, and suffixes identify misspellings in own and others' written work keep individual spelling lists of personally relevant words proofread during the editing stage (e.g., during drafting have students underline words that they need to check at the editing stage) consult dictionaries, computer spell checks, and other resources

Spelling Error Analysis

Sample Spelling Mini-lesson

If, when observing students' written work (see the sample of writing below), the teacher recognizes that several students need a review of the spelling rule i before e except after c, the teacher may prepare a mini-lesson similar to the following.

Introduce

Never I couldn't beleive it. I just couldn't beleive it. In a few short moments we (the band) would be on the feild marching for all that we were worth to win the Canadian field marching championships. We just had to ...

Explain

State the rule (i before e except after c) and explain that the rule only works in syllables with a long e sound. Explain that, like most rules, this one has exceptions, but that remembering it will help students spell most ie words.

Practise

Have students pair up to create a list or help the teacher create a list of familiar ie words from their current writing or reading projects. Some words students or the teacher may suggest include wiener, field, believe, grieve, achieve, shriek, pier, and piece. Discuss any suggested words that are exceptions.

Review and Record

Record the rule and examples on chart paper and read this aloud to/with students. Post the chart paper for further reference or have students record the information in a separate language study section of their notebooks.

Apply and Reinforce

Have students pair up to read each others' most recent written work and to identify any ie words. They should check the words to determine if they are spelled correctly and add those that are spelled incorrectly to their personal spelling lists.

Grammar

Grammar, another aspect of language study, refers to the patterns in which words are arranged to convey meaning. Because it is not necessary to discuss consciously the structure of language in order to use it, children who enter school at age five or six already speak using very complex patterns of language. This intuitive knowledge of sentence structure enables them to generate and understand sentences that contain grammatical complexities which are beyond their intellectual capacity to explain, and provides the basis for further grammar instruction. However, because isolated grammar study often results in students acquiring a body of language facts, definitions, and rules that are distinct from genuine communication, it is of little instructional value. For example, intense practice in analyzing and labelling sentence parts does not guarantee that students will become fluent speakers and writers. Instruction, then, is most useful and relevant when it is provided in the context of the students' own speaking, listening, writing, and reading experiences so they can see that their knowledge of grammar serves as a tool for producing clear and accurate communication.

At the Middle Level, attention to grammar should help students develop an awareness of how language parts work together to construct meaning. Language knowledge and ability develop through use; therefore, grammar knowledge and skills are most effectively presented in the context of what the student is striving to achieve at the time that assistance is needed and appropriate.

Language study can provide the tools for students to conduct their own appraisals of clarity, force, and accuracy in their writing. Students need to discuss word arrangements and sentence structures as they revise their writing or when they discuss oral presentations and works by other authors.

Grammar Concepts and Knowledge

Integrated grammar instruction has two purposes: to enable students to manipulate language for effective communication and to extend the quality and flexibility of their language use. Teachers should provide students with the following concepts and knowledge when they apply to the students' own language processes, on a need-to-know basis.

• Grammar describes the system or conventional patterns of a language.
  
• Words and word arrangements are classified according to their use and placement within sentences.
  
• Every language has unique word orders and patterns. (What is correct and conventional in one language may not be correct or typical in another language.) Such understanding increases students' appreciation of cultural linguistic differences.
  
• Knowing grammatical terminology provides students with a "language" to talk about their own and others' spoken and written language, and allows them the opportunity to move or manipulate words and sentence parts for the best effect. As well, this knowledge improves students' ability to revise and proofread written work.
  
• The parts of speech that make up sentences include nouns, pronouns, verbs and auxiliaries, adverbs, adjectives and determiners, conjunctions, and prepositions.
  
• Sentence parts include subject, predicate, phrase, and clause.
  
• Types of sentence patterns include simple sentence, compound sentence, complex sentence, and compound-complex sentence.
  
• Expanding and combining sentence parts and sentence patterns create interest and enhance clarity and understanding. Sentence building and combining activities are best employed using sentences that the students themselves produce.
  
• Other structural topics may include the following: object of the verb, object of the preposition, verb tenses, subject-verb agreement, possessive and plural nouns, double negative, and dangling modifier.

The teacher should also address other concepts, knowledge, or terminology which students require in order to extend their ability to use spoken and written language effectively. It is important to guide students to expand and extend their ability to use language effectively in their daily communication inside and outside of school, rather than to study it as a complex system to be memorized.

Suggestions for integrated grammar instruction include the following:

• Provide students with opportunities to use language in a variety of relevant and meaningful situations.
  
• Limit the use of grammatical terms to those that are useful for immediate discussion and instruction.
  
• Expose students to well-written and well-spoken material.
  
• Provide grammar mini-lessons within students' reading and writing (e.g., revision, editing) experiences.
  
• Conduct grammar instruction incidently, briefly addressing an individual's or a small group of students' immediate needs.
  
• Draw students' attention to ways that authors use language for specific purposes or effects (e.g., sentence structures, metaphors, dialogue).
  
• Use literature that students are reading to provide examples of various grammatical concepts and skills.
  
• Encourage students to imitate language patterns from literature.
  
• Use examples of student writing to demonstrate the various grammatical concepts. For example, instruct students individually or in groups as needed using an anonymous student draft projected from an overhead projector to demonstrate the effectiveness of sentence combining.

Assessment and evaluation suggestions include the following:

• Teachers can provide students with checklists or help them develop their own checklists for self-assessment, peer assessment, or teacher assessment and evaluation.
  
• Students can keep portfolios of their writing over a period of time to demonstrate their growth in ability to use standard grammar.
  
• Teachers can keep anecdotal notes about each student to indicate areas of growth and need with regard to grammatical concepts and knowledge.

Language Usage

Language study also includes directing attention to language usage. Language usage refers to the word choices, pronunciations, and patterns that speakers and writers typically use. There are standards for different situations, audiences, and purposes. For example, different levels of language usage are expected and required for a casual conversation with a friend and for a formal presentation to an audience of parents and community members. Different levels of written language usage are appropriate for a friendly letter and a job application cover letter. These language habits develop unconsciously within social and cultural milieus, and relate to attitudes and language standards of groups.

This curriculum reflects the understanding that language varies according to situation. Cultural backgrounds, home language experiences, and school language experiences all determine usage. It may help to explain to students that we change our clothing according to the people we are with and the situation or event we are attending. Similarly, our oral and written language choices are also determined by the people we are addressing (audience) and the circumstances or setting (situation). Students must be aware that language choices or levels range from very familiar or informal to very specialized or formal. Appropriateness rather than correctness dictates language choices.

Modern usage instruction is flexible and helps students to make appropriate usage choices in oral and written language. Instruction should be aimed at increasing the range of levels of usage available to each student.

Language Mechanics

Language mechanics (capitalization and punctuation skills and concepts) should be developed and integrated as needed, and refined on a continuous basis. At the Middle Level most students will have acquired basic knowledge about the mechanics of language; however, they may need reminders about the application of their prior knowledge.

Language Mechanics Skills and Knowledge

Students may find it useful to be able to name and know the purpose(s) of the following: period, exclamation mark, comma, semi-colon, colon, quotation marks, dash, ellipsis, italics, paragraph indentions, and capitalization.

The teacher should also address other mechanical skills, concepts, and terminology that students need to extend their ability to communicate clearly and effectively. These are best addressed on an individual basis or during small group mini-lessons as students are speaking, listening, writing, and reading.

Suggestions for integrating mechanics into instruction include the following:

• Provide instruction on an individual basis as much as possible, although at times small group instruction may be more feasible.
  
• Keep the learning relevant by using student work-in-progress as the basis for teaching mechanical knowledge and skills (e.g., during the revision stage of the writing process).
  
• Use samples of student writing to demonstrate or point out the use of specific mechanical skills and concepts.
  
• Make the purpose for the knowledge/skill/concept clear to the students (e.g., the comma guides the reader to pause when reading, therefore clarifying meaning).

Assessment of Language Mechanics

Checklists and anecdotal notes are most useful for monitoring student knowledge of and ability to use the concepts of punctuation and capitalization. These instruments may serve peer, teacher, or self-assessment purposes. Teachers can carry out diagnostic assessment for each student early in the school year in order to get a sense of the instruction that is necessary. Then, by continuing to monitor the student's use of the skills and knowledge on checklists or as anecdotal notes, teachers will be able to maintain records of each student's progress. Students can monitor their own abilities on a regular basis, becoming aware of their own areas of need and success. A sample form follows.

Completion of checklists should occur over time and in the context of students' language experiences. It is important that teachers determine objectives for gathering particular information from individual students, as observations for each student will vary depending upon abilities and needs. The observations should help to determine the instruction needed by each student.

Checklist/Anecdotal Notes: The Mechanics of Language