It is intended that the following speaking and listening activities be integrated with the other language processes and not taught in isolation. In each of the following activities, both speaking and listening are addressed to provide for the development of students' speaking and listening abilities in conjunction with one another.
Conversation serves many functions. People use conversation to establish relationships through personal expression, to find out information, and to compare views with others. Conversation provides a means for sharing experiences and solving problems.
Teachers can capitalize on the critical role of conversation in students' lives and use it to enhance their language learning. Through experiences with the language processes, the students can discover a steadily expanding series of topics and purposes for conversation. Students should have opportunities to talk about a variety of topics such as projects, books, characters, television programs, and videos. Because what students talk about is easier for them to write about, the topics of their conversations often act as springboards for their writing.
It is important for students to converse about topics of personal interest. Ideas for classroom conversation come to students through reading, listening to others talk, and reflecting on the experiences that school and life have to offer. Experiences in the English language arts classroom and in other subject areas make excellent sources for conversation. Assigned topics may not inspire students to talk as much as student-selected topics. To facilitate and encourage student conversation, teachers could:
To encourage interest in conversation activities, teachers should allow students to use their natural language. This language is home-rooted and may be characterized by non-standard speech or by a distinct dialect. Alternative ways of saying things must be accepted. When the teacher joins the conversation, the teacher's way of speaking is one of the many acceptable alternatives and serves as a model for the students. As students grow in language abilities, they will make choices regarding their own ways of speaking. Teachers must be sensitive to dialect and take care to create an environment for acceptance and positive response to all dialects. To encourage students to use their own language and to accept others' ways of speaking, teachers could try the following:
In conversation, it is important for students to have a useful vocabulary. Clarity and precision are the keys to effective word choice in conversation. Teachers should not expect perfection from students in the use of unfamiliar or difficult words, but rather should develop a supportive environment and group rapport that encourage students to experiment with unfamiliar words. Students need to know that words represent thoughts. Rather than attempting to use unusual syntax, outlandish phrases, or "big words", students should strive to find direct and meaningful ways of making themselves understood. To help students develop a useful vocabulary, teachers could try the following:
Students must also observe common courtesies in conversation. Some common courtesies may be established by the whole class, and individual as well as group assessment could be conducted periodically to see if these common courtesies are being observed. The following list includes some useful reminders:
Teachers should model the use of common courtesy in conversation at appropriate times in scheduled classes and outside of class (e.g., in the hallways, at club meetings, around a lunch table).
Discussion differs from conversation in that it generally has an identifiable purpose, such as coming to a clearer understanding of characters' roles in a drama or exploring the possibilities for publishing student writing. Discussion is similar to conversation with regard to listening carefully, considering what others say, being courteous, and speaking so that all can hear. Many of students' conversational abilities will transfer to discussion situations.
Discussion assists students in the development of reasoning, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills. It gives them practice in expressing ideas orally in an organized manner and enables them to arrive at conclusions, clarify or modify ideas, resolve differences, and find alternative solutions. In group discussions, students are called upon to theorize, generalize, and make decisions. In discussions students may encounter viewpoints different from their own. They come to see that there are many problems for which there is no one appropriate solution. As well, discussion can serve as a means of building consensus among group members.
Discussion Groups
Groupings of three to five are good for effective discussion. Everyone is able to contribute to the discussion as a listener and as a speaker. In addition, a small group draws out quieter students who may not contribute to larger group discussions.
In a small discussion group, students are able to structure their own ideas and experiences. Depending on the classroom and the circumstances, groups may be either student-selected or determined by the teacher. Leadership in discussion groups may emerge without appointment, but on occasion it may be advisable to appoint leaders, giving each group member a particular responsibility. Groups need to be rearranged from time to time to allow students to work with a variety of peers.
Before the Discussion
Before the discussion begins, it is necessary for the group to establish the purpose. An overall purpose, for instance, might be to explore responses to a video the students have viewed; or it might be to consider the effect of The Great Depression on a particular writer. It is important that discussion questions are consistent with the purposes set by the group.
Students could generate a list of questions to address before beginning the discussion. Such a list might include:
In addition to setting goals, students could produce a list of discussion guidelines for the group to follow.
During Discussion
It is important for students to know that there are no hidden agendas, and that purposes and practices of the discussion have been previously determined. Discussion is guided by the central purpose of developing the group's knowledge or understanding of the matter being discussed. The discussion should be open-ended, not requiring students to come to a single conclusion.
Students should be encouraged to listen closely to all ideas, ask probing questions, summarize or paraphrase ideas, express support for one another, summarize concepts, and check for agreement. They should understand that, when opinions differ, they are criticizing ideas and not people. Besides giving reasons for or defending viewpoints, they must practise integrating ideas and appreciating others' viewpoints.
After the Discussion
Most post-discussion activities will be forms of student reflection or self-assessment. For student self-assessment, a form like the one on page 94 may be developed. Students should be involved in setting criteria and in constructing the form.
Learning logs and journals serve as valuable self-assessment tools for individuals who participate in discussion. The use of audiotape and videotape recordings can also provide records of students' abilities and interactions for review and analysis.
In addition to self-assessment and reflection, members of the discussion group should assess and report on their success as a group. An assessment form could be filled out by one group member, based upon the consensus of the entire group. Sample forms for assessing individual participation and group performance are on the following pages.
Types of discussion groups are described below.
Brainstorming Sessions
The goal of brainstorming is to generate many ideas in a short period of time. A topic for investigation could be selected from meaningful classroom experiences (e.g., How can we get more students to work on the newspaper? How can we create an attractive bulletin board for Education Week?). The group members suggest as many ideas as possible, building, borrowing, and using ideas freely. All ideas are recorded and no criticism or evaluation is permitted while ideas are being generated, as the purpose of the activity is to elicit many creative ideas or solutions.
Committees
Asking for or appointing committees can be a good strategy for involving the students in small group work. Committee work is rewarding as long as the members consider the task important. A committee might be formed to advertise a classroom drama production, for example; or a committee might be useful in choosing new books for a classroom library.
Literature Circles
In Literature Circles small groups of students read sets of books at the same pace, discussing them regularly. They may choose to read the same book or read a variety of books on one theme. These groups help students to become more knowledgeable about writing styles and about their own speaking styles. Students speak about what they enjoy and what they need to investigate. Discussion about books enables students to share their responses to and their appreciation of the language, plot, characters, and levels of meaning in a book. (More detail about Literature Circles is provided in the Reading section.)
Although students may explore the writer's craft during Literature Circle activities, it may be beneficial to form Literature Study groups from time to time for the specific purpose of studying various elements of the writer's craft. Literature Study groups focus on such elements as story structure, symbolism, suspense, setting, and character, examining how the author uses these to create meaning and move the story forward. By studying the writer's craft, students gain a greater appreciation for the author's abilities and acquire ideas and strategies for use in their own written work.
Talking Circles
Talking Circles provide safe environments in which students are able to share their points of view with others without fear of criticism or judgement. Talking Circles are useful when the discussion topic has no right or wrong answer, when students are sharing feelings, and when students are considering moral or ethical issues. As well, it is an effective strategy for reaching group consensus and for problem solving.
The class sits in a circle and each student has the opportunity to speak. If the circle is large, it can be effective to seat ten or twelve students in an inner circle and the rest in an outer circle arranged around the inner circle. Only those in the inner circle are allowed to speak and students take turns sitting in the inner circle. The circle continues until the participants have nothing further to say on the topic.
Students may pass around a neutral object such as a stone. The person holding the object is the only one permitted to speak. The object is passed to another student who then becomes the speaker. This continues until everyone has had an opportunity to share.
Some guidelines for Talking Circles include the following:
Teacher-led Discussion
General guidelines for teacher-led discussions include the following:
Students should talk more than the teacher and should talk to each other more than to the teacher. Students then come to the understanding that their perspective is valuable and that they need to listen to others' opinions and remarks. Teacher-led discussion should involve all group members, each contributing from his or her different understanding and perspectives.
Respond to comments from each student, so all will feel included in the discussion. Refrain from asking for other ideas without first acknowledging what someone has said, and avoid judgemental responses.
Ask questions that require students to predict, hypothesize, evaluate, and infer--allowing for a variety of answers and encouraging several students to respond. It is a good idea to wait ten seconds or so after asking a question before expecting a response. Practise asking questions that help students become aware of their own assumptions and logic. (Occasionally, there are instances when a teacher cannot ask open-ended questions, if the teacher wishes to lead the students toward a particular concept. At these times, it is a good idea to emphasize the students' personal interpretation of information before discussing the author's concept. A teacher might ask, "What did you think of the ending of the poem?" or "What do you see as the main ideas in this essay?")
Encourage students to provide reasons for their statements and to elaborate on their remarks by asking questions like "How do you know?" or "What makes you think that?" Invite students to expand their ideas, ask for clarification, and ask students to restate thoughts.
Sample Self-assessment for Individual Contributions
to Group Discussion
Sample Assessment Form for Discussion Group Performance
When students take part in writing conferences and reading conferences, they become engaged in meaningful oral language activities that encourage them to talk and listen, and that help to create a sense of community. Oracy skills and literacy skills have a reciprocal relationship and reinforce each other. (Writing and reading conferences are described in detail in the Writing and Reading sections of this curriculum guide).
Storytelling is an oral sharing of a personal or traditional story, told using the essence of the tradition from which it originates. As a shared experience between teller and listener, it offers natural language experiences for students.
Storytelling can be an enjoyable activity for both tellers and listeners and
should be engaged in at all grade levels. The teacher should model storytelling
before expecting students to tell stories. As well, students should have
opportunities to listen to Native Elders and other storytellers who can provide
enjoyment and act as role models for their own storytelling experiences.
Storytelling allows students to internalize important aspects of story beginnings and endings, settings, characters, and plot lines. It provides practice in expressing ideas in thought units, using colourful and descriptive language, developing ideas in sequence, and choosing effective action words.
The speech abilities needed for storytelling are essentially the same ones required for all speaking activities. Storytelling encourages students to experiment with voice, tone, eye-contact, gestures, and facial expressions. It also lets them practise techniques for holding audience attention. Storytelling encourages reading motivation and aids listening comprehension. It can lead directly to story writing.
Before Storytelling
As an introduction to storytelling students might tell riddles, jokes, or personal anecdotes that have some story elements. In each case, practice beforehand is required and close attention must be paid to the conclusion or punch line.
To ease students into the practice of storytelling, the teacher might suggest that they make up different endings to stories that are old favourites and tell them to one another. After a story is read aloud, an individual or group could create an add-on story and tell it. Another introductory activity is having students recall one incident in a story they have read, and telling about that incident as though they are one of the characters involved.
When students are comfortable with the idea of storytelling they can choose to tell tales that appeal to them. Some of the best sources are collections of folk tales and fairytales from around the world. These tales have been gathered from the oral tradition and are records of human survival throughout the ages, as well as unique glimpses into cultures. Titles of suitable collections of tales for storytelling are listed in the bibliography that accompanies this curriculum guide.
The following guidelines apply to storytellers in general (teacher and students):
Students may wish to tell stories from real experiences or from their imaginations, rather than retelling stories they have read; or they may wish to retell a story they have heard. Topics for personal stories might include how students got their names, favourite family possessions and the stories behind them, grandparent stories, family pet stories, or pourquoi tales (e.g., where does lightning come from?).
If students like to develop their own stories, they might borrow traditional plots, themes, and story patterns; or they may take several versions of the same story and combine them to achieve the results they want. A story could be transposed from the past to the present or future, or a traditional tale could be transferred from one time period or geographical setting to another. Some new stories are actually traditional ones, reconstructed with a different perspective in mind.
While Storytelling
Listeners require a physical setting that allows them comfort during the storytelling, perhaps on a rug and cushions in the reading corner. Listeners should be encouraged to relax and to concentrate on understanding and enjoying the storytelling experience.
Storytellers should find a comfortable position, look directly at the audience, tell the story as they have practised it, and let the tale do its work.
Storytellers may darken the room, play music, or do whatever helps to create an appropriate mood. They may select visual aids or props (e.g., an article of clothing, illustrations, wordless film) to enhance the effectiveness of their stories. These aids offer a number of advantages:
After Storytelling
Talking with students about their listening experience after the story has been told is an important way to develop their "story sense". As well, discussing what they have heard allows students to reflect on the interpretations each of them has of story and how their own unique life experiences and prior knowledge affect those interpretations. Students need time to explore thoughts and feelings about story characters and events.
When a storyteller is ready to examine his or her storytelling style, the teacher might make arrangements to have the storytelling process either audiotaped or videotaped. Students need to be reminded that the storytelling process is what is important: the shaping of the story, its restructuring, and the discovery of what it was in the story that mattered to them. Although students will strive for improvement, performing a story in a polished way is not the primary purpose.
If an audio recording is used for self-assessment, storytellers might listen for the effectiveness of the use of pauses, intonation, phrasing, certain sound effects, timing, repetition, or voice pitch and volume. They can chart these on a checklist they have created for this purpose. If a video recording is used, they might wish to assess posture, effectiveness of visual aids, hand gestures, body movements, and facial expressions. After viewing or listening to the tape and completing the checklist, students could identify one or two areas for improvement.
Alternatively, the teacher could write the storyteller a short, positive note. For example:
Dear Jeffrey,
You spoke clearly and your classmates enjoyed your story. I especially like
your strong tone of voice and your description of "the night".
Mr. Reynolds
Together, the teacher and students could design an assessment checklist for the storytelling process. Following is one suggested format.
Sample Storytelling Process Assessment
Oral reading is a complex process in which the reader becomes the "link" between the author and the listeners by comprehending the selection and interpreting it for the enjoyment and understanding of those listening. Students who read orally improve their speech and understanding, and gain much enjoyment when they experience success.
Students should be given many opportunities to practise oral reading, either by themselves (with an audio recorder) or in pairs. Often, the support given by a peer changes hesitant oral readers into willing and competent oral readers. Always provide time for sufficient practice before expecting a student to read aloud in class.
A willing audience is necessary for success in oral reading and the teacher should prepare students to be effective listeners. Students may read to individuals, to small groups, to the whole class, to other classes, and to interested adults. Students benefit from listening to oral reading, and should be given opportunities to listen to the teacher and to professionally recorded audiotapes.
Before Oral Reading
The teacher and students should identify the purpose(s) for oral reading. Some common purposes for oral reading include the following:
Allow time for students to prepare for reading aloud. For example they may wish to "pencil in" slashes at appropriate pause points to facilitate ease of reading, or highlight phrases to be read with extra emphasis.
During Oral Reading
After the preparation for oral reading is complete, students are ready to read. Encourage them to:
Listening is an important aspect of the oral reading process. Usually, the listening audience will be listening to comprehend a message or to appreciate or enjoy. Listeners can be prepared through a variety of pre-reading experiences such as anticipation guides and teacher (or student) narrative.
After Oral Reading
After listening to an oral reading, students can discuss their responses in small or large groups. The teacher or student-reader might ask questions such as, "What did you like?" or "What did you wonder about?" Student-listeners should be encouraged to talk about their personal reactions to the oral reading. They might also make up questions they would like to ask a character, or compare a particular character with one from a different story. Listeners may assess their own listening abilities with a checklist similar to the one on the following page.
If students record their oral reading on video, they could play back the tapes at a convenient time using a checklist of criteria to assess their oral reading abilities.
Sample Listener Self-assessment for Oral Reading
Sample Oral Reading Assessment
In preparing reports, students develop the ability to select material appropriate to classroom topics and to the audience, and the ability to collect and organize material (requiring skill in reading critically, taking notes, summarizing, and outlining). Often a report can be made more meaningful to the audience through the use of visuals such as charts, maps, diagrams, and overhead transparencies.
Oral reports should emerge from other English language arts processes. If some students are not comfortable with reporting, they can develop more confidence by taking part in other oral activities before they are ready to give a report.
Before the Oral Report
Reports should be written, then presented orally. Students need to be instructed about where and how to locate information, how to prepare notes, and how to put the information into their own words.
Students and teacher together can plan a set of guidelines for reports, which should be posted for reference. Some suggestions include the following:
Reports should be genuine and useful. The following are examples of useful reporting in the English language arts classroom:
During the Oral Report
It is important that the report has an interesting, attention-getting opening and closing. Students should use notes and simple outlines for their oral presentations. Students may assist the teacher in drawing up a list of guidelines to follow while orally sharing reports, such as the following:
Some of the items listed above (e.g., eye contact) can vary across cultures and in accordance with the situation. Teachers should also be aware of second language and dialectical differences that can be present in students' speech, and adapt their assessment instruments accordingly.
After the Oral Report
Debriefing provides listeners with opportunities to make connections between what they know and what they have heard. Listeners can extend their understanding of information and concepts through discussion or written responses.
Debriefing also helps speakers assess how well they have expressed themselves. Speakers might assess their success using a learning log entry similar to the one on the following page. Teacher assessment may take the form of an assessment checklist or rating scale, a letter to the student, or a student-teacher interview. It is important that students are aware, at the outset of the project, of the criteria upon which they will be assessed.
Sample Student Learning Log Entry for Oral Reporting
Sample Peer Assessment for Oral Reports
Sample Teacher Assessment of Oral Report
The ability to give clear oral directions is a skill that can be taught and practised in the context of English language arts activities.
Before Giving Directions
The teacher and students should consider the requirements for giving clear directions and prepare a list such as the following:
While Giving Directions
The students should:
The following are examples of direction-giving talks students might prepare in the context of language arts activities:
After Giving Directions
Self-assessment may take the form of a learning log or journal entry. Peer evaluation might include discussion (e.g., "Did the group understand what was to be done and how to do it? What was one especially good quality of the presentation? What might be one suggestion for improvement?"). Teacher assessment could be conducted using a checklist similar to the one on the following page.
Sample Direction-giving Assessment: Anecdotal Notes
The telephone is an important tool for personal, school, and business use because of the rapid communication it permits. Therefore, there is need to reinforce personal speaking and listening abilities regarding telephone use.
Before Telephoning
Students could brainstorm ideas about basic telephone etiquette and generate a list such as the following:
While Telephoning
Students must have authentic reasons for telephoning when they are practising their skills in the English language arts classroom. Reasons can include the following:
While telephoning, the student should practise the techniques previously established by the class.
After Telephoning
As soon as possible after telephoning, students should complete a self-assessment form based upon criteria established prior to their placing the call. A sample checklist follows.
Sample Telephone Self-assessment Checklist
Student's Name:
Date:
Person Spoken To:
Reason for Call:
1. Was I polite and professional?
2. Did I identify myself immediately?
3. Was I prepared with notes and a note pad?
4. Did I attend to the listener?
5. Did I show respect for my listener?
6. Did I keep the call brief and on topic?
7. Did I double check my facts?
8. Did I follow up on the conversation with a note or letter?
Making announcements can serve as useful oral speaking practice at any grade level. As with other types of speech activities, criteria for making announcements should be developed by the class. These criteria should address the recommended format and manner of presentation and serve as guidelines for the students. Some guidelines include the following:
After the announcements are made, peers or the teacher might write the student announcer an informal note, commenting on the strengths of the presentation and including one suggestion for improvement.
Listeners should be encouraged to concentrate on the speaker making the announcement, taking care not to become distracted. As well, listeners should give appropriate responses to the speaker, confirming their understanding or asking questions for clarification.
The more formal "interest talk" can be the basis for learning if it is accompanied by opportunities for exploration beforehand. A supportive environment is necessary for encouraging talk in formal situations. It is important to provide learning situations that encourage the sharing of both work-in-progress and completed ideas and information. The interest talk is not memorized; it flows from the student's own knowledge of the topic. The interest talk generally attempts to inform the audience.
Before the Interest Talk
Students need to choose topics that interest them. They should have a clear idea of the topic, when and where they will be presenting the talk, the purpose of the talk, and the nature of the audience. Next, they need to gather information and develop an outline for the talk. An outline helps students develop a comfortable familiarity with their material. Students may wish to prepare index cards with points outlined on them and they may choose to use visual aids to enhance their presentations (e.g., use of a slide projector, computer display, audio or video recordings, overhead transparencies, chart paper or chalkboard, posters, photographs, illustrations, or graphs).
Students should be encouraged to practise their talks in front of an imaginary audience, a mirror, or a friend. Together the teacher and students may create a list of guidelines for practice similar to the one below:
During the Interest Talk
If the student is prepared, the interest talk itself should be an enjoyable experience. Interest talks can take a variety of forms, from a five-minute review of a movie to a fifteen-minute slide presentation accompanied by explanations. Students should be reminded to speak in a relaxed but enthusiastic and confident manner.
After the Interest Talk
Peer assessment could be done by three or four members of the class, rather than the entire class. The assessors could write answers to questions such as the following:
Assessment criteria should be discussed or developed with students prior to beginning an interest talk project. A sample checklist follows.
Sample Interest Talk Assessment
Students should be given opportunities to introduce speakers when occasions in the English language arts classroom warrant speaker introductions (e.g., visiting authors, community members, student presenters). Introductions should be thoughtfully prepared, reasonably brief, and delivered in a clear voice.
Before the Introduction
With the students, the teacher may draw up a list of guidelines for introductions such as the following:
During the Introduction
The speaker should direct comments to the audience, making remarks and gestures that draw attention to the person being introduced. Listeners are encouraged to focus on the speaker and to respond appropriately when the introduction is completed.
After the Introduction
At a suitable time, discuss the introduction with the class: what went well and what could be improved. The teacher or a few peers could make anecdotal notes or fill in checklists of appropriate criteria during the introduction. A sample assessment checklist for teacher or peer is shown on the following page.
Sample Assessment for Introducing a Speaker
Students should also be given opportunities to thank speakers when occasions in the classroom warrant it (e.g., visiting authors, community members, other teachers and students). A thank you should show a sincere appreciation for the speaker's effort or message and should reflect the relevance the message has had for the audience. Teachers may want to develop an assessment tool similar to the one for Introducing a Speaker, which is shown on the following page.
Choral reading or speaking is simply reading or speaking in unison under the direction of a leader. Choral speaking offers genuine opportunity for problem solving as each group works out its own presentation. It has three major purposes:
Practising choral speaking or reading does not necessarily mean there must be a performance. Practice has its own value whether the product is shared with others or not.
Choral speaking or reading has many benefits:
Several types of choral speaking or reading are appropriate for classroom use:
Before Choral Speaking or Reading
Some preparation guidelines include the following:
During Choral Speaking or Reading
Students may divide their groups into "lighter and darker" voices (considering tone quality) or "high and low" voices (considering pitch), or they may decide to mix the groups. After choosing one of the types of choral speaking and practising it, students should deliver it with enthusiasm and enjoyment.
As students continue to experiment with different elements of oral interpretation in their groups, the teacher should circulate among groups to monitor progress and provide encouragement. Student groups may share their interpretation with the whole class or with one other group. Positive comments should be offered by peers.
After Choral Speaking or Reading
Teachers should record notes and observations about student oral language development. Observations should be made regarding students' involvement in choral speech, willingness to consider and offer suggestions, efforts to discuss and interpret the selections, and ability to use correct terminology (e.g., pitch, volume).
Teachers may wish to start a video recording library of student choral speaking selections and performances that can be used during assessment, or serve as models for other students. As well, teachers may encourage students who would like to present their work at assemblies or concerts. Invite students to collect and share favourite materials for future choral speech. Be sure that there is an opportunity to include selections that correspond to unit themes currently being explored or that are personally meaningful to the students. Encourage students to experiment further with the dramatic elements in choral speech (e.g., light/dark, sound/silence, movement/stillness) in order to create mood and atmosphere in their oral interpretations.
In the classroom, puppets are creations that "come to life" with the help of student puppeteers. Almost any object can be a puppet. An effective puppet is one that can be manipulated easily; however, it is not what the puppet looks like that counts, but rather how the student feels about, and uses, the puppet. Puppets can be incorporated into a variety of oral language strategies including storytelling, oral reporting, and choral speaking.
Puppetry is a valuable learning practice for many reasons:
Some guidelines for preparing for puppetry activities include the following:
During the performance of puppet plays, consider the following:
After the performance of puppet plays, discuss the various aspects of the puppet play presentations with students. Some students may choose to write or draw in response to the puppet play they have created or viewed (e.g., journal writing, creating dialogue for another puppet play, illustrating the setting).
Using anecdotal records, the teacher should note observations made while students were taking part in the entire activity:
Role play provides the opportunity for students to develop and revise their understanding and perspectives by exploring thoughts and feelings of characters in given situations. The teacher may take a role, becoming an active participant in promoting independent thinking and co-operative learning.
The difference between role play and drama in context is that role play is a strategy for exploration and does not attend to structure or aesthetic concerns. Role play can be used to explore one situation or episode and does not need to be structured in beginning, middle, and ending episodes. Closure can be achieved through reflection or debriefing, rather than through a specific ending in the role play.
Role play helps students to develop:
Before the Role Play
Explore possibilities concerning sources for role plays. While literature is the most frequently used source, the media and students' life experiences are also rich sources of role play situations and issues. Carefully plan for integration of all language processes into the role play. The following describes a method of planning a role play:
The beginning framework for a sample plan follows:
Topic/Theme Choice - Novel: Cowboys Don't Cry
Possible Concepts - Friendship, Ranches, Rodeos, Horses
Possible Selected Concept - Rodeos
A Key Question - How do children of circuit rodeo contestants cope with their parent's rodeo lifestyle? (This question involves individuals and introduces human conflict.) Sample viewpoints and corresponding situations are listed on the chart that follows.
| Viewpoints | Possible Situations or Circumstances for Role Plays |
| Shane's Teachers | deciding at a staff meeting what should be done about fighting at school |
| meeting to report on results and concerns regarding extra-curricular activities (e.g., track, dances) | |
| The Sutherland Family | speaking with one another over supper to discuss Shane's injuries and what they can do to help |
| meeting with members of Social Services who have become concerned about adequate parental supervision for Shane | |
| Other Rodeo Contestants | giving advice to Josh about raising his son, at an informal gathering at the end of a rodeo |
The next step is to select one of the situations to begin with and choose viewpoints for participants. For example, students may choose the situation in which "The Sutherland family meets with Social Services personnel"; then they must decide who will play each role.
Further preparation for role play includes the following:
During Role Play
It is important that students feel safe taking risks as they enter into various roles. Establishing expectations and rules (e.g., no put-downs) with students can help students to be supportive of each other during the role play. Listeners should be encouraged to observe attentively so that they are prepared to respond and discuss following the drama.
If the role play has been planned effectively and all the steps have been carried through, the experience should be satisfying and positive for all participants.
After the Role Play
Assessment of role plays will mainly occur through reflective discussion and through assessment of the products which develop in response to the drama (e.g., written work, art work). Student participation is important; however, participation does not always involve talking. It is possible for a student who has remained very quiet during the role play to write effectively and thoughtfully about the experience.
Improvisational drama can be used to extend students' range of oral language and increase their understanding of human experience. It enables students to gain problem-solving experience in unpredictable situations. Through improvised drama, students build social skills. They become more sensitive listeners and more adept conversationalists.
Improvisation is often used as a strategy to help students develop a contextual drama or role play. However, improvisation can be accomplished with more spontaneity and with less comprehensive planning. It often involves asking students to provide their own mini-story, based on materials and ideas relating to some aspect of the English language arts program. Interpretation will involve spontaneous movement and vocalization. Sounds, objects, issues, traditions, and life experiences are a few of the "springboards" that may motivate improvisation.
Different types of improvisation include the following:
Teachers will find that they can develop their own activities for improvisation as their classes progress. It is important for students to know that they must always demonstrate what is going on rather than simply telling or narrating. It is also critical that teachers accept each student's appropriate improvisational interpretation. Ask students to explain why they chose to interpret things in particular ways or request elaboration regarding their interpretations. Outcomes of all scenes should be discussed with the participants and the listeners. Both the improvisations and the discussions that result may be used to spark writing or other reflective activities.
Pantomime is often used as a method of introducing improvisation. Many students are more willing to speak spontaneously if they have become comfortable with movement first. Pantomime (conveying ideas without words) encourages students to use their entire bodies in dramatic expression. Although pantomime is a silent activity, it is included with the oracy section of the curriculum because it serves as a preparation for dialogue, and because much oral language is used in discussing pantomime before and after it is performed. As well, nonverbal communication used in pantomime can later be used to support and enhance verbal communication.
Pantomime is particularly useful for exploring the five senses, for portraying mood, for creating a character or plot, and for telling a story. Pantomime stimulates the imagination and clarifies perception as students try to remember sequencing of actions and what objects are like in terms of size, weight, and shape. Concentration and close attention to detail are necessary for recalling and expressing emotion silently. Close observation of people is a way of developing believable characters whose movements belong to them and whose behaviours seem appropriate. A full-length mirror is useful for rehearsing pantomime, from total body movement to producing the facial expressions for one who is happy, frightened, angry, or surprised. Video recordings help to show the development of a sequence and to view the final outcome.
It is important that players are not told how they feel, but rather provided with the circumstances and the mood which enables them to portray the appropriate emotions.
Sidecoaching pantomime, where a reader who is "off to the side" provides the reading of a narration that other students pantomime, may be a starting point for Middle Level students. The reader might read from a piece of edited literature or from a student-written script.
Structured drama experiences play an important supportive role in the speaking, listening, writing, and reading processes by allowing students to discover and experience the interdependent nature of communication. Drama experiences such as drama in context help students to develop:
Dramas in context are structured explorations of situations, issues, or topics. A drama in context is an evolving drama experience, rather than one based on a script. The structure evolves as the drama progresses through constant reflection and on-the-spot planning by the teacher and students. The overall structure of the drama includes starting points (beginnings), exploration episodes (middles), and closure (endings). This attention to structure differentiates dramas in context from role plays. Contextual dramas may take place in one class period or they may continue over several periods, evolving in new directions as students’ imaginations lead them to explore new possibilities.
Within dramas in context, students explore fictions, issues, events, or life experiences and create their dramatic explorations based on personal response and group decision making. Drama in context includes students in all phases of the experience, from the initial planning right through to the final reflection session.
The main purpose of drama in context is to have students imagine the thoughts and feelings of others in meaningful situations. Students should also attend to the aesthetic aspects of their drama by considering such elements as conflict, contrasts, and the use of imagery. Although dramas in context are usually not intended for an audience, some might be developed into "collective creations" and presented to other students or parents.
Role of the Teacher
The teacher’s role is extremely important in contextual dramas. In addition to maintaining a classroom climate that is conducive to creative thinking and problem solving, the teacher adopts roles in the drama and works along with the students. This places the teacher in a position to guide the students’ learning from within the drama. The teacher can stimulate the students’ imaginations by providing starting points for their thinking (e.g., by adopting the role of a messenger with a mysterious letter).
It is essential that the teacher ask appropriate questions throughout the drama. The most important questions in helping students plan a drama in context begin with "what if" (e.g., What if this character encountered ...? What if this took place in ...? What if the battle had been lost and the people were faced with ...?)
Before the Drama in Context
Before participating in a drama in context, students and the teacher should:
During the Drama in Context
During the drama both teacher and students work in role. Some students will adopt the role of a particular individual (e.g., the chairperson of a board) and some students will work as a group (e.g., the stockholders at a company meeting). The roles should change throughout the drama and students should be provided with opportunities to work in a variety of groupings: whole group, small group, pairs, individually, and half and half ( half work, half watch).
During the drama, the teacher asks questions that encourage students to explore, seek information, branch out in different directions, express opinions, reflect on their work, and decide in which direction to go next. At any point in the drama, the work can challenge the teacher and students to choose new strategies and alter their process. They should remember that dramas in context develop episode by episode as the work progresses and as students’ imaginations provide new possibilities.
After the Drama in Context
Reflection can take may forms. Discussion can be initiated with questions such as the following: What was our purpose and did we achieve it? What new thoughts did we have about the situation we explored? If we were to continue the drama, in what direction might it go?
Reflection can also include journal writing, drawing, and other personal responses. Participation in dramas in context should be assessed in a variety of ways, as it cannot be assumed that quiet students are not engaged in the drama.
| Structuring a drama in context is a complex process involving extensive planning, problem solving, and reflection by both teacher and students. Teachers wishing to explore drama in context further should consult the drama strand of the arts education curriculum guide for planning information. Teachers might consider a collaboration with the drama teacher. |
Readers Theatre is a form of dramatic interpretation that involves students in reading scripts orally. Readers Theatre requires no scenery, costumes, or action. Readers convey mood, tone, and emotion, and suggest character through the use of their voices, facial expressions, and gestures.
Although it is intended to be shared with an audience, Readers Theatre is also very process- oriented. It provides opportunities for students to practise both their reading and speaking skills, and is an effective strategy for helping students develop confidence in their reading abilities so that they will move on to solo oral reading. As well, if struggling readers are grouped with fluent readers, it helps them to read more fluently.
Generally, selections for Readers Theatre include five or six readers for each piece. Selections should be able to hold the interest of the readers and the audience through vivid oral expression. Students may write their own scripts, or script short stories, novel excerpts, nonfiction, and epic or narrative poetry. As well, short plays or excerpts of plays may be fun to perform.
Purposes of Readers Theatre include the following:
Before Participating in Readers Theatre
Some guidelines include the following:
During Readers Theatre
During Readers Theatre, it is important to consider the following:
After Participating in Readers Theatre
Some activities to consider following Readers Theatre include:
On occasion, students and teacher may wish to present a play to an audience. There are many possible formats. A script can be selected in advance, or written or developed by the students. A play can be memorized by student actors, or it can be presented as a staged reading, script-in-hand. Groups of students might develop a drama in context into a collective creation for presentation to others. Whatever the format, public performances should be infrequent and planned mainly for presentation to other classes or to parents.
Choosing a Play
The best choices of plays to present are ones that have been written or developed by the students. This provides students with motivation and a knowledge of the background and subject matter. It enables them to portray believable characters, as the characters are of their own creation. When choosing a student-written or professionally-written play to present, consider the following questions: Does the play contain worthwhile and relevant material? Are the characters believable or interesting? Does the dialogue offer enrichment? Is the play interesting to the students? Are there enough parts to involve the whole group in some way?
If the play is a scripted play, the text should use language that creates character, provokes action, and offers credibility. The play should provide opportunity for students to interpret its literary content and its production requirements (e.g., set, costuming, lighting, props). It should provoke thought in both performers and audience. The script should be reasonably short, requiring as little time as possible for rehearsal. Long periods of time spent in rehearsing difficult scenes may not be productive.
Although students and the teacher may wish to prepare a full production, they should be aware that simple staged readings also offer possibilities for presentation. A staged reading (script-in-hand) does not preclude the use of costumes and lighting, and the reading can include movement and physical interpretation, just as a full production does. Playwrights often present staged readings of works-in-progress so they can see their play "on its feet" and assess audience response.
| The Middle Level arts education curriculum guides contain extensive information on developing collective creations. Teachers wishing to develop a play with students for public presentation might consider the collective creation as a possible format. As does drama in context, the collective creation presents an opportunity for collaboration with the drama teacher. |
Director
The teacher generally becomes the director during rehearsal periods, although some students might be capable of assuming that role with the teacher’s assistance. The director gives enough guidance to make the actors feel secure, but provides enough freedom for individual interpretation.
Stage or Playing Space
The director and students should decide what type of space best suits the purposes of their play: arena (audience on four sides), thrust (audience on three sides), or the traditional proscenium (audience viewing from one direction only). Students might study the history of these various playing spaces and the effect they have on an audience’s experience with the play. Whatever the choice, the playing space should be reasonably small with good acoustics. Often, an open space in a large classroom or the gym is all that is required.
Stage Manager and Cast
A responsible student should be chosen as stage manager. The stage manager attends all the rehearsals and keeps a record of all actions, cues, and decisions that are made regarding the presentation.
If the play is a scripted play, the actors could be chosen through auditions. It is essential that casting be done sensitively and fairly, and that all students have the opportunity to participate in some way. If the play is a collective creation, roles will probably be established naturally and collaboratively throughout the process.
Set, Props, and Costumes
Set and costumes need not be elaborate. Some plays require no particular set or costumes. However, set and costumes offer additional possibilities for visual presentation, creative interpretation, and participation by students interested in design.
Responsible students should be chosen as managers of the set, costumes, and properties, if these are required. Properties (props) are those items used by the actors during the presentation (e.g., a telephone, a gym bag). These can be made or borrowed by the students and need not be elaborate or highly realistic. Ideas can be suggested through the clever selection of items (e.g., a lace table cloth to suggest wealth).
Costumes and set can be planned collaboratively, or students with a particular interest in design might develop ideas through consultation with everyone involved in the presentation. Any necessary set pieces should be constructed by the students. Costumes need not be realistic. They need only to suggest necessary information (e.g., a shawl to suggest a particular time period).
Rehearsals
The cast must become thoroughly familiar with the play and characters through reading, discussion, or improvisation. Questions such as the following may be considered: Could you describe the character you are playing? What are the character's relationships to other people in the play? What are this character's aims, beliefs, dislikes? How does this character fit into the main events of the play?
A rehearsal schedule should be made. Frequent shorter rehearsals are most effective, so scenes, instead of the whole play, should be rehearsed; complete run-throughs can occur closer to performance time.
If lines are to be memorized, they should be memorized early, because this frees the actors to concentrate on the action of the play and on developing character. In the case of collective creations, students might continue exploring and changing lines and episodes throughout the rehearsal process, as they refine their presentation and clarify their intentions.
As rehearsals progress, the play should grow in unity and cohesiveness. The actors will develop a spirit of co-operation and a sense of understanding. Two or three dress rehearsals should take place, and should be planned from the beginning. By the time the play is presented, all the problems of cast and crew should be solved. Also, rehearse the curtain call, if there is to be one.
Performance
The director needs to maintain an attitude of calm encouragement. Refrain from excessive criticism or excessive praise. The actors' goal should be successful communication with their audience.
One performance is recommended. However, at times, students can learn a great deal by giving the performance a second time.
Members of the class can serve as ushers for the audience, and can also hand out programs, if there are any. Publicity should take the form of posters made by class members. Always remember, it is a school play where educational and social values come before any grand theatrical displays.
After the Presentation
Debrief with students through discussion or written responses. These responses can be general observations or specific to the role that the student played. Students, whether audience members or presenters, can engage in various reflection activities such as journal writing, drawing, interviews, or role plays.
Most students are quite familiar with audio and video equipment. Throughout this curriculum are suggestions for audio and video recording as a way to provide feedback to speakers and to let them know how their presentations look and sound. Recordings are also a means of preserving classroom oracy activities and presentations as models for other students or for assessment and reporting purposes.
At times, groups or individuals may wish to pre-tape a presentation to be used in the classroom, rather than simply recording live classroom presentations. For instance, a group of students might make up a news broadcast for events happening in a story or they might create a talk show using story characters as guests. Very often, such productions require that scripts be written, so this involves group collaboration in writing activities before any of the recording takes place.
An interview is a good way to gain information and provide the participants with practice in improving speaking and listening skills. Results of interviews can be prepared for publication in reports or in the school newspaper, thus supporting the writing component of the language arts program.
Students might interview people from the community who have firsthand knowledge regarding topics being studied at school or they might interview visitors, fellow students, or teachers. It is important that the interview has a definite purpose. For example, a student could arrange an interview with a police officer to talk about "missing persons' files" if that student has been reading a novel about a mysterious disappearance, or has been studying nonfictional accounts of lost children.
Before the Interview
Effective interviews are the result of careful planning. The teacher and students together should draw up a checklist of preparations that must be made for interviewing. Some important steps to include are:
During the Interview
Guidelines are necessary for students to establish the way in which interviews should be conducted. Some suggestions include the following:
After the Interview
The teacher should discuss the interview process with the interviewer and with the class (audio or video recordings can be discussion starters).
If the interview has taken place away from the school, the student interviewer could complete a self-assessment and report back to the teacher or class. If the teacher and students have been able to observe the interview, a few students may be asked to fill in a peer-assessment checklist. An example of a rating scale is shown on the following page.
Sample Interviewer Assessment Rating Scale
Students who participate in debates have an opportunity to explore, listen, and enjoy learning. Debates give students additional opportunities to hear their classmates' views and to express opinions regarding topics that matter to them. They also help students make important decisions and become critical listeners. The informal debate helps students to work together to understand common problems.
Informal debate has a number of advantages:
Before an Informal Debate
Some guidelines include the following:
The goal of informal debate should be to achieve the fullest possible explanation of both sides of an issue.
During an Informal Debate
Some guidelines for informal debate follow.
It is not necessary, and in many cases not advisable, to declare a "winning" group for an informal debate. However, if the teacher and students decide they will declare a winner, then the following way of establishing a winner could be followed:
After the Informal Debate
Students may react to the debating activity in an individual manner. This might best be done in written form, because much discussion will already have taken place. Students might:
A meeting is a gathering of two or more people for the purpose of discussing common topics/problems or resolving specific issues. Each person attending a meeting must accept responsibility as a speaker and a listener. Students who plan to attend a meeting need to prepare for their activities before, during, and after the meeting.
Before the Meeting
Before a meeting, students should:
If you are chairing or leading the meeting, you might be expected to:
During the Meeting
During a meeting, it is important to consider the following:
The leader or chair of the meeting should motivate others to participate, yet be sure to cover the meeting's agenda:
After the Meeting
After the meeting, it is important to follow up on any responsibilities you have as a result of the meeting:
The chair or leader should:
Co-operative learning involves students in group collaboration in order to achieve a goal or to complete a project. Although students do not necessarily work together at one table throughout the project, participation by each group member is necessary to accomplish the task. Success and assessment are based on the performance of the group, as well as on individual contributions and performance within the group.
Co-operative learning experiences are particularly effective at the Middle Level, where students have an innate desire to be accepted. Competitive, individual efforts are appropriate at times; however, co-operative learning experiences have the advantage of helping students work together and support each other.
Purposes of co-operative learning include the following:
Some guidelines to consider prior to co-operative learning activities include:
As students work through the project, the teacher should monitor student participation and progress, and observe and discuss their efforts.
Possible group structures include:
Jigsaw Groupings
Small Group Inquiry
The teacher's role is one of facilitator and advisor. It is important for the teacher to:
After co-operative learning activities, it is important to consider the following:
