Reading is an interactive-constructive process in which readers comprehend, interpret, and respond to text according to what they already know. Effective readers "have personal expectations about what they will get from a selection, and they bring those expectations to bear as they read by predicting and testing their predictions. They actively create meaning by constructing, or generating, relationships between what is within the text and what they already know" (Hennings, 1994, p. 456). See the diagram that follows.
An interactive-constructive model suggests that each student's interaction with a particular text differs and that each student constructs meanings that are uniquely personal.
Some researchers describe the reading act as a "transaction", in which meaning emerges from a continuing give-and-take relationship between the reader and the print on a page, each shaping and shaped by the other. The reciprocal interaction between readers and the text allows readers to construct their own meaning according to their background knowledge and experience.
In any reading transaction readers takes positions along the cognitive-affective continuum, depending upon their purposes. From the cognitive position, the reader's purpose is mainly to construct meaning that is to be remembered following the reading (e.g., actions to be performed, conclusions to be drawn, and concepts to be applied). From the affective position, the reader's purpose is mainly to experience personal feelings and ideas called to mind during reading. For example, if students are reading primarily for entertainment they will likely choose the affective position. On the other hand, if they are reading to understand how to construct an expository paragraph they will choose the cognitive position. However, cognitive and affective reading are not opposites; most reading consists of a combination of both.During the reading process meaning is constructed from text by:
Proficient readers sample text, rather than focus on every detail. They make predictions and inferences and the meaning they make will be based upon the sampling, the reader's prior knowledge, and the specific context/situation. Readers then confirm or correct their predictions by further sampling the text, rereading if necessary, checking context, or reading ahead. Readers bring meaning to the text by using a developing and constantly adaptable set of expectations about what they will find as they read. As well, proficient readers access their knowledge of the language cueing systems to help them understand what they read.
An Interactive-constructive Model of Reading
In both the cognitive and affective positions, many factors affect the meaning that readers make of the text. Reading comprehension is influenced by the reader's world knowledge, linguistic knowledge, text structure knowledge, and metacognitive knowledge.
World Knowledge
Readers construct meaning before, during, and after a reading transaction depending upon their interest in and prior knowledge about the following:
Readers have schemas, or organized networks of prior knowledge and experiences about topics, which create expectations when reading about those topics. When students are involved in a reading transaction, they add to or adjust their schemas and their schemas influence and aid their comprehension of what they read. Using their existing schemas, readers make predictions and inferences about what they read.
Linguistic Knowledge
The reader's knowledge of the way that language works (e.g., the position of words in a sentence, punctuation marks, and word relationships within sentences) contributes to successful comprehension of text. Through the use of context clues provided by the cueing systems--graphophonic, syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic-- readers make sense of what they read.
Proficient readers are concerned with meaning first. They use the continuous formulation of meaning to determine how much attention needs to be given to the print in confirming or correcting predictions, and also in making further predictions. Middle Level students need to continue to develop a balanced use of the interacting language cueing systems to access meaning from text. As readers become proficient, they internalize the language cues and use them automatically to help them make sense of what they read.
When it is necessary for the teacher to review any of the language cueing systems, it is done most effectively in the context of what the student is reading and it will be achieved most appropriately on an individual basis.
The correspondence of patterns of sounds (phonemes) to the patterns of letters (graphemes) at the word level is an important decoding tool for all readers. For example, when decoding the word apprehend, readers see nine letters and hear three phonemes--/ap/+/pre/+/hend/. By the Middle Level most students use these skills automatically.
The knowledge of word order rules used to make meaningful phrases and sentences--syntax--assists the comprehension process. Readers can predict the possible meaning of a word by determining its grammatical use in a sentence. In the following example, Middle Level readers may have difficulty with the word rambunctious.
The rambunctious children raced around the yard nonstop.
Most students will be aware that the word The precedes a noun or that it is a noun marker, and that the word children is a noun; therefore, as rambunctious describes the noun, children, it is likely an adjective. Students can then see that if the children raced around the yard, they must be full of energy. Thus, through the syntax, they will be able to arrive at a meaning for the unknown word.
The meaning of the words surrounding the unknown word in the same or nearby sentences can help students determine if their interpretation of the unknown word makes sense in the sentence and in the text as a whole. In the following example, the phrase on his head is supplied by the writer to help students understand the meaning of the more unusual or difficult word beret.
The man wore a beret on his head.
Students' knowledge about the social appropriateness and conventions of language in particular contexts contributes to their understanding of what they read. For example, slang may be acceptable in casual dialogue (e.g., between characters in a story), but would not be used in formal contexts (e.g., magazine article).
Text Structure Knowledge
The readers' knowledge about text patterns and the structure of various genres, and their abilities to use such structural understandings and elements effectively, contributes to the construction of meaning. For instance, a poem may rhyme or have a repeating pattern; an expository passage develops logically; a short story or novel includes such elements as setting and characters; headings indicate major sections of text; and summaries review main points. When students are aware of the structure of text, they will understand better what they read and remember it for a longer time period. Readers use their knowledge of text structure to differentiate between narrative and expository reading materials, and they adapt their reading strategies accordingly. As well, when students recognize paragraph patterns (e.g., simple listing, cause and effect, contrast and compare, time order) and the signal words within the paragraphs (e.g., for example, in particular, however, but, on the other hand, in addition, secondly), they develop a sense of text organization that helps them to make meaning of what they read.
Metacognitive Knowledge
Metacognitive knowledge refers to the readers' awareness of how they make meaning and how they knowingly monitor their own understanding as they read. Effective readers use a variety of comprehension strategies as they read; they often raise and answer questions in their minds by visualizing, predicting, and summarizing to themselves and rereading as necessary. Metacognitive readers recognize when something does not make sense and they take appropriate action to do something about it. Examining their own thinking allows readers to understand how they arrived at a particular meaning and offers them the option of revising their understanding.
Reading Rates
The ability to recognize when to read faster or slower is one skill of a proficient reader. Individuals adapt their reading rate depending upon their prior knowledge of the topic and language used, the text structure, and their purpose for reading. Teachers can help students recognize the need for adapting their reading rates according to their purpose by:
| Reading Rate | Use this rate when: |
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Skimming
(readers conduct a quick overview to get the overall gist of text) |
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Scanning
(readers glance over text in search of a specific detail) |
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| Rapid |
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Slow and Careful
(readers wish to get an in-depth understanding of a passage or text) |
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