Discussion differs from conversation in that it generally has an identifiable purpose, such as coming to a clearer understanding of characters' roles in a drama or exploring the possibilities for publishing student writing. Discussion is similar to conversation with regard to listening carefully, considering what others say, being courteous, and speaking so that all can hear. Many of students' conversational abilities will transfer to discussion situations.
Discussion assists students in the development of reasoning, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills. It gives them practice in expressing ideas orally in an organized manner and enables them to arrive at conclusions, clarify or modify ideas, resolve differences, and find alternative solutions. In group discussions, students are called upon to theorize, generalize, and make decisions. In discussions students may encounter viewpoints different from their own. They come to see that there are many problems for which there is no one appropriate solution. As well, discussion can serve as a means of building consensus among group members.
Discussion Groups
Groupings of three to five are good for effective discussion. Everyone is able to contribute to the discussion as a listener and as a speaker. In addition, a small group draws out quieter students who may not contribute to larger group discussions.
In a small discussion group, students are able to structure their own ideas and experiences. Depending on the classroom and the circumstances, groups may be either student-selected or determined by the teacher. Leadership in discussion groups may emerge without appointment, but on occasion it may be advisable to appoint leaders, giving each group member a particular responsibility. Groups need to be rearranged from time to time to allow students to work with a variety of peers.
Before the Discussion
Before the discussion begins, it is necessary for the group to establish the purpose. An overall purpose, for instance, might be to explore responses to a video the students have viewed; or it might be to consider the effect of The Great Depression on a particular writer. It is important that discussion questions are consistent with the purposes set by the group.
Students could generate a list of questions to address before beginning the discussion. Such a list might include:
In addition to setting goals, students could produce a list of discussion guidelines for the group to follow.
During Discussion
It is important for students to know that there are no hidden agendas, and that purposes and practices of the discussion have been previously determined. Discussion is guided by the central purpose of developing the group's knowledge or understanding of the matter being discussed. The discussion should be open-ended, not requiring students to come to a single conclusion.
Students should be encouraged to listen closely to all ideas, ask probing questions, summarize or paraphrase ideas, express support for one another, summarize concepts, and check for agreement. They should understand that, when opinions differ, they are criticizing ideas and not people. Besides giving reasons for or defending viewpoints, they must practise integrating ideas and appreciating others' viewpoints.
After the Discussion
Most post-discussion activities will be forms of student reflection or self-assessment. For student self-assessment, a form like the one on page 94 may be developed. Students should be involved in setting criteria and in constructing the form.
Learning logs and journals serve as valuable self-assessment tools for individuals who participate in discussion. The use of audiotape and videotape recordings can also provide records of students' abilities and interactions for review and analysis.
In addition to self-assessment and reflection, members of the discussion group should assess and report on their success as a group. An assessment form could be filled out by one group member, based upon the consensus of the entire group. Sample forms for assessing individual participation and group performance are on the following pages.
Types of discussion groups are described below.
Brainstorming Sessions
The goal of brainstorming is to generate many ideas in a short period of time. A topic for investigation could be selected from meaningful classroom experiences (e.g., How can we get more students to work on the newspaper? How can we create an attractive bulletin board for Education Week?). The group members suggest as many ideas as possible, building, borrowing, and using ideas freely. All ideas are recorded and no criticism or evaluation is permitted while ideas are being generated, as the purpose of the activity is to elicit many creative ideas or solutions.
Committees
Asking for or appointing committees can be a good strategy for involving the students in small group work. Committee work is rewarding as long as the members consider the task important. A committee might be formed to advertise a classroom drama production, for example; or a committee might be useful in choosing new books for a classroom library.
Literature Circles
In Literature Circles small groups of students read sets of books at the same pace, discussing them regularly. They may choose to read the same book or read a variety of books on one theme. These groups help students to become more knowledgeable about writing styles and about their own speaking styles. Students speak about what they enjoy and what they need to investigate. Discussion about books enables students to share their responses to and their appreciation of the language, plot, characters, and levels of meaning in a book. (More detail about Literature Circles is provided in the Reading section.)
Although students may explore the writer's craft during Literature Circle activities, it may be beneficial to form Literature Study groups from time to time for the specific purpose of studying various elements of the writer's craft. Literature Study groups focus on such elements as story structure, symbolism, suspense, setting, and character, examining how the author uses these to create meaning and move the story forward. By studying the writer's craft, students gain a greater appreciation for the author's abilities and acquire ideas and strategies for use in their own written work.
Talking Circles
Talking Circles provide safe environments in which students are able to share their points of view with others without fear of criticism or judgement. Talking Circles are useful when the discussion topic has no right or wrong answer, when students are sharing feelings, and when students are considering moral or ethical issues. As well, it is an effective strategy for reaching group consensus and for problem solving.
The class sits in a circle and each student has the opportunity to speak. If the circle is large, it can be effective to seat ten or twelve students in an inner circle and the rest in an outer circle arranged around the inner circle. Only those in the inner circle are allowed to speak and students take turns sitting in the inner circle. The circle continues until the participants have nothing further to say on the topic.
Students may pass around a neutral object such as a stone. The person holding the object is the only one permitted to speak. The object is passed to another student who then becomes the speaker. This continues until everyone has had an opportunity to share.
Some guidelines for Talking Circles include the following:
Teacher-led Discussion
General guidelines for teacher-led discussions include the following:
Students should talk more than the teacher and should talk to each other more than to the teacher. Students then come to the understanding that their perspective is valuable and that they need to listen to others' opinions and remarks. Teacher-led discussion should involve all group members, each contributing from his or her different understanding and perspectives.
Respond to comments from each student, so all will feel included in the discussion. Refrain from asking for other ideas without first acknowledging what someone has said, and avoid judgemental responses.
Ask questions that require students to predict, hypothesize, evaluate, and infer--allowing for a variety of answers and encouraging several students to respond. It is a good idea to wait ten seconds or so after asking a question before expecting a response. Practise asking questions that help students become aware of their own assumptions and logic. (Occasionally, there are instances when a teacher cannot ask open-ended questions, if the teacher wishes to lead the students toward a particular concept. At these times, it is a good idea to emphasize the students' personal interpretation of information before discussing the author's concept. A teacher might ask, "What did you think of the ending of the poem?" or "What do you see as the main ideas in this essay?")
Encourage students to provide reasons for their statements and to elaborate on their remarks by asking questions like "How do you know?" or "What makes you think that?" Invite students to expand their ideas, ask for clarification, and ask students to restate thoughts.