| The information in this section applies to all grade levels, 6-9. Grade level differences will be reflected in the teacher's choice of learning objectives, resources, and activities. |
| Students learn to write by exercising all the options available to real-world authors, including daily time for writing, conferences with teachers and peers, pacing set by each individual writer, and opportunities to publish their writing. (Atwell, 1987, p. 10) |
Writing and thinking are interwoven. Writing is a complex process that allows writers to explore thoughts and ideas, and make them visible and concrete. Thinking is the foundation of writing and, because thinking is central to learning, students who are able to make their thought processes concrete through writing enhance their learning capabilities.
Writing encourages thinking and learning for the following reasons:
Writing is a way of crossing the boundaries of time and culture, reaching those not present when the piece is written. Writing generates discussion through peer conferences or sharing activities.
Writers must think to decide what to say and how to say it (e.g., explore and organize thoughts, make word choices, add or delete ideas), and identify audience, purpose, and point of view. Writing encourages the development of more complex thought as ideas are analyzed, evaluated, and compared.
When thought is written down, ideas can be examined, reconsidered, added to, rearranged, and changed.
All of the senses--sight, hearing, taste, smell, and touch--contribute as ideas are generated and refined into written work.
Writing is most likely to encourage thinking and learning when:
By recognizing that writing is a recursive process, and that every writer uses the process in a different way, students experience less pressure to "get it right the first time" and are more willing to experiment, explore, revise, and edit.
By choosing topics from their own experiences, observations, and interests, students get a sense of ownership of the writing in which they are involved; this sense of ownership promotes commitment and continuing interest. When students determine their own audience and purpose for writing, they are compelled to find a way to say it clearly, appropriately, and effectively.
From pre-writing to final draft, talking about their writing is central to students' learning about their writing abilities and needs, and learning from the writing of others.
Writing keeps the mind open and alert to ideas for writing. Regular and frequent practice is necessary to becoming an effective writer.
(Adapted from Haley-James, 1982. Used with permission of the National Council of Teachers of English.)
Learning to write is a developmental process. "The process approach to writing focuses upon the exploration and awareness of what writers actually do and what choices they make when they write" (Policy for English Language Arts, 1989, p. 23). A process approach to writing helps students to write as professional authors do, choosing their own topics and genres, and writing from their own experiences or observations. A writing process approach requires that teachers give students greater responsibility for, and ownership of, their own learning. Students make decisions about genre and choice of topics, and collaborate as they write.
Teachers who view writing as a process recognize the following:
During the writing process, students engage in pre-writing, planning, drafting, and post-writing activities. However, as the writing process is recursive in nature, they do not necessarily engage in these activities in that order. The following describes the writing process:
Pre-writing: using pre-writing techniques to gather ideas
Planning: using structures to organize for writing
Drafting: putting ideas down on paper; exploring new ideas during writing
Post-writing
It is important for teachers to recognize that becoming an effective, independent writer takes time and practice. The chart on the following page presents one view of the stages through which writers travel as they progress from dependence to independence. Clearly, these stages are recursive rather than linear in nature, and students' performance levels may vary depending upon the type of writing task (e.g., students may create narrative with great independence, while being novices at writing expository material). As well, students arrive in the classroom at various levels in the developmental stages of writing, and it is the teacher's responsibility to assist students by encouraging, modelling, and supporting their growth when and where needed.
Pre-writing: A Place to Start
Pre-writing, the first stage in the writing process, begins long before the writer puts thoughts into writing. The experiences, observations, and interactions that students have prior to entering the classroom have an impact upon what they will write and how they will write it. Within the classroom, pre-writing prompts and activities can be integrated into the writing process by teachers as scaffolds to help students generate ideas for their writing and to practise the thinking skills inherent in the activity.
Developmental Stages of Writing: From Dependence to Independence
| Stage 1 Novice Writer (unskilled, unaware, teacher-dependent writer) |
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| Stage 2 Transitional Writer (transitional, self-involved, self-delineating writer) |
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| Stage 3 Willing Writer (peer-involved, willing writer) |
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| Stage 4 Independent Writer (independent, autonomous writer) |
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To initiate thinking and generate possible writing topics, it is important for students to explore ideas for writing topics using a variety of pre-writing strategies, such as the following:
Explain to students that writers use pre-writing ideas, such as the ones below, to help them explore topics about which to write. Teachers may want to post suggestions on the bulletin board for student reference. Students should be invited to add their own pre-writing strategies to ideas such as the following:
Pre-writing prompts or activities planned by the teacher can serve as writing scaffolds for inexperienced writers who have difficulty accessing their own feelings, ideas, experiences, and knowledge. Teacher-planned pre-writing activities, such as the samples that follow, give students a place to start and make them aware of places from which to get ideas in the future. Students who have a place to start will be more motivated to continue developing their ideas and their own writing voices.
Sample Pre-writing Activity #1
Time allotment (5-10 minutes)
Sample Pre-writing Activity #2
Time allotment (5-12 minutes)
Sample Pre-writing Activity #3
Time allotment (5-8 minutes)
Planning: Organizing for Drafting
After students have generated some ideas, they must decide what they will say about their chosen topic. Students develop an initial plan for the product they will compose. As they do so, they must consider the purpose, audience, point of view, and format because these elements have implications for both the planning and the drafting of the written product.
To develop an initial plan for drafting:
Using such structures as outlines, story frames, maps, diagrams, charts, and concept webs, students organize the information they have generated during pre-writing.
To consider purpose:
Writers write to express ideas, feelings, emotions, and opinions, and students must ask themselves, "What is my purpose for writing this piece?" Some purposes for student writing are:
To consider audience:
Writers must consider who they are writing for and students must ask themselves, "Who is my intended audience?" Some possible audiences are:
To consider point of view:
Writers must determine from which point of view their ideas or information will be expressed, so students need to ask themselves, "Who is telling this story/describing the events?" Some points of view for student consideration are:
To decide what information will be gathered and how it will most effectively be gathered:
Students who decide that they need to conduct interviews or go on field trips to gather information will need to brainstorm and construct a list of questions, while students who require library research will need to decide the types of resources and references to consult.
To consider format:
Students will use audience and purpose to determine format and genre. They will have the opportunity to write in a variety of narrative, descriptive, expository, and poetic formats such as:
Drafting: A Time to Splurge
At this point in the process, the emphasis is on content and meaning rather than on mechanics and conventions. This is the time for writers to get down their ideas and thoughts, composing rough drafts based upon pre-writing and planning activities and considerations. As they compose, writers begin to determine what to include and exclude, and make initial decisions about how these ideas will be organized. During the drafting
stage of the writing process, meaning begins to evolve.
To produce a first, rough draft:
To write subsequent drafts:
To revise the draft for content and clarity of meaning:
To edit the draft for mechanical and conventional concerns that detract from and obscure meaning:
To focus purpose, audience, and point of view, and confirm appropriateness of format:
To confer with peers and the teacher:
Some suggestions for scaffolds at the drafting stage include the following:
Post-writing: Preparing To Go Public
When students have an authentic audience and purpose, they want to rework their written drafts, polishing them for presentation or publication. Going public means taking a huge risk; the student's self-esteem is on the line, so the decision about how and with whom to share their writing must be up to the student writer. Teachers may encourage students to share certain pieces or determine the number of pieces that students are required to share or publish within a set time period, but ultimately the decision about which pieces to share, and with whom, should be left up to the writer.
To prepare a final, polished draft:
Students may write in legible handwriting or use a word-processing program to prepare a polished written work.
To decide if and how the written work will be shared or published:
Sharing provides students with an immediate audience. Some examples include the author's chair, which provides opportunity for students to share their writing aloud with the whole class; sharing in small groups or with a partner; and using bulletin board space assigned to a specific genre or to a class of students. At times, students should be provided with opportunities to decide if they wish to share their written work, and whether they will share in pairs, in small groups, or with the whole class. Students may choose to publish their writing in such formats as:
To decide if the written work will be placed in the student's assessment portfolio:
Teachers can negotiate with students to generate guidelines about the number and variety of pieces that they are required to place in their portfolio for assessment and evaluation purposes. Contracts may be useful to address individual student needs and abilities. Students should be involved in making choices about which of their written pieces will become part of their portfolios.
Some suggestions for post-writing scaffolds include the following:
Middle Level students respond well to a predictable classroom structure within which there is some flexibility and choice. Teachers should take time to ensure that students understand how the classroom structure and instructional activities work together. This section explains one way of structuring and managing a writing process classroom, and includes some sample charts for assessment and recordkeeping purposes.
It is important to create an atmosphere that allows and encourages students to feel safe taking risks in order to develop a community of writers who support each other and share with each other (the teacher is a part of this community). Let students help set guidelines and rules to make their environment safe (e.g., no put-downs).
Desks can be arranged in clusters or tables can be used to accommodate four to six students. On a specified shelf, resources can be provided which will assist students as they write (e.g., dictionaries, language study texts, literature as models, and samples of student writing). Writing process information can be displayed on bulletin boards. Areas of the classroom can be designated for specific activities (e.g., peer conferences, writing and publishing tasks).
The teacher plays an interactive role and builds scaffolds as needed. The teacher should model the various writing formats and conventions of the writing process, and provide the needed help as each student is writing. As a member of the community of writers, the teacher also writes and shares his/her writing with the students.
| While the students are engaged in pre-writing, the teacher may do her/his writing on an overhead transparency, projecting it onto a screen for students to observe. This models the process, as well as the specific format or conventions being used. |
Most writing class periods will consist of the following components, although not necessarily in the order they are listed: mini-lesson, status-of-the-class check, sustained writing time, peer and teacher conferences, and sharing or publishing.
Mini-lessons
At some point during most writing classes, in a 5-10 minute mini-lesson (length depends upon the procedure, concept, skill, or convention to be taught), the teacher provides students with information necessary for their writing. Mini-lessons about language usage and conventions such as spelling, sentence structure, and punctuation are necessary; however, they should emerge from the students' writing or the curriculum objectives, rather than being arbitrarily determined by the teacher. It is important to allow time for students to practise concepts introduced in mini-lessons within the context of their own writing.
The decision about what to teach in a mini-lesson depends upon the selected objectives as well as upon the students' needs and interests. The following lists provide examples of topics that may require mini-lessons.
Writing Process Procedures
Literary Elements and Devices
Language Conventions and Mechanics
Writing Formats and Genre
Some mini-lessons may be planned for the whole class because the teacher has determined the need for students to have specific information that supports their learning or the unit of study. Other mini-lessons may be provided to individuals or small groups as the need arises. If the concept to be taught is complex, the teacher should provide instruction in steps, allowing students the opportunity to practise each step before putting them all together.
Teachers should keep records (e.g., lesson plan sheets, anecdotal notes, checklists) of mini-lesson topics and to whom they were presented. Students may also be required to keep records of mini-lessons received (e.g., handouts, notes, checklists), for future reference.
Class Survey
Conduct a quick survey of what each student is intending to do or has accomplished during each class. The survey serves to help students set goals, to give other students ideas for their own writing, and to inform the teacher. A Class Survey sheet, similar to the one that follows this section, may be filled in by the teacher as students quickly share each day. When teachers file the survey sheets, they have a running record of student progress. Students may be given responsibility for filling in their own daily goals or achievements on a Daily Writing Record sheet, which is then reviewed periodically by the teacher. It is a good idea to include these recordkeeping tools in the students' portfolios to provide documentation of student daily writing intentions, activities, and progress.
Sustained Writing Time
Following the status check, the students are given an extended period of writing time. Teachers should remember that students will be at different stages in their process. Some will be at the pre-writing stage, while others are revising, and still others are editing, preparing final drafts, or publishing. The teacher may be writing for some of the time also.
Writing Conferences
During most of sustained writing time the teacher should be circulating throughout the classroom, conducting brief informal conferences and providing instructional scaffolds for each student as needed. As well, the teacher must build in time for extended student-teacher conferences and for peer conferences.
Checklists may be helpful to students as they reflect upon their own writing and as they confer with peers and the teacher. Conference checklists serve as scaffolds as students practise talking about writing; they may be shortened or eliminated altogether when students are more comfortable with conferencing about writing and have internalized the process. As well, conference checklists inform the teacher about the nature of peer interaction during writing conferences. Examples of checklists appear on pages following this section.
Sharing/Publishing
Most writing is meant to be read or heard by an audience. Writers must be their own first audience, but they also require the genuine response of others. Teachers may wish to establish regular sharing times (e.g., the end of each class period). This encourages students to try out new ideas for writing or sharing. Some means of sharing or publishing student writing are:
Together teachers and students should set the criteria for sharing during Authors' Circles (e.g., length of time, number of pieces to share, appropriate responses). A suggested procedure for Authors' Circles follows:
Class Survey: A Record of Daily Writing Plans
Sample Daily Writing Record
Sample Writing Conference Revision Checklist
Sample Editing/Proofreading Checklist
Sample Written Language Checklist
Prior to engaging in writing conferences, students should be encouraged to reflect upon their own work. Self-reflection helps students to improve their own writing, as well as to formulate specific questions which can provide a focus for the peer or teacher writing conference. A list of questions, such as the following, may assist students as they reflect upon their own written work. These questions may be provided by the teacher or developed with students.
| As you write ... Ask yourself some of these questions (or have a conference partner ask them after reading the writing-in-progress):
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A writing conference is a conversation about writing--the author's ideas, structures, successes, and difficulties. Conferences, in pairs or small groups, may or may not include the teacher. Writing conferences can take place at any time during the writing process. They may last only a few seconds as writers check on a certain writing concept or concern, or conferences may be extended conversations, several minutes in length.
To encourage effective writing conferences, the teacher should establish an environment in which students feel it is safe to take risks and where classroom procedures for conferencing are agreed upon by teacher and students.
Purposes of writing conferences include:
It is important that students recognize that conferencing about others' writing does not mean that they are expected to fix it. Only the writer has the right and responsibility to make revisions and clarify meaning. Questions are often the most helpful feedback, as they lead writers to reflect upon their meaning and craft.
Teacher-Student Conferences
While students are writing, the teacher circulates throughout the classroom, conducting informal conferences. During such a conference, the teacher spends only a few moments with each student, asking questions or building needed scaffolds so that students can continue their writing. At other times the teacher holds longer extended conferences, usually with one student at a time. The teacher may set a schedule for students or allow students to sign up for extended conferences. It is helpful to have students state (e.g., on their Writing Conference Revision Checklist or verbally) at least two purposes for the extended conference so that the teacher will be able to focus on these, thus assisting students with self-identified concerns and with making the conference relevant. As well, effective questions can help the writer and lead to improved written work. Questions such as the following can help writers to reflect upon their work:
Peer Conferences
Peer conferences are an essential part of the writing process, as well as a useful teaching strategy. During a peer conference, students are both teachers and learners who:
Teachers can assist students by providing expectations for peer conferencing sessions. It can be useful to involve students in setting some of the expectations. The following examples may be discussed with the students and posted for reference, or may be adapted for student handouts.
| Steps For A Peer Writing Conference 1.The writer decides how the written work will be shared. Will it be:
2. The writer identifies what aspects of the written work will be the focus of the conference (e.g., the beginning paragraph, figurative language). 3.The conference partner states at least:
4. The writer retains the right to the written work and is responsible for making the final decision about any changes. |
| Guidelines for Successful Peer Conferencing 1.Help others identify or clarify their problems, but remember only they can solve those problems. 2.Observe and share feelings, avoiding judgement as much as possible. 3.Be brief and clear, dealing with immediate concerns and the effect they have on you here and now. 4.Listen closely to the writer's concerns and consider these concerns when reading or listening to the written work. 5.Regarding the written piece itself, the conference partner(s) consider(s):
Is it interesting? Does it grab your attention?
Does it leave out important details?
Is it satisfying?
Is it clear and easy to understand? Is it appropriate to the writer's purpose, audience, and format? |
| Tips For A Successful Proofreading Conference Sentences: Do they end with full-stop punctuation? Is there noun-verb agreement? Are they varied in length and complexity? Are they interesting? Paragraphs: Is there a new paragraph for each new idea or for each new speaker? Are all new paragraphs clearly identified? Does one paragraph lead logically into the next paragraph? Standard Usage and Grammar: Read the piece aloud to yourself or a peer. Does the language sound correct? Check a language text or talk to a peer if you are uncertain. Spelling: When proofreading a piece, if a word looks misspelled, try to spell the word in different ways: sound it out, check the dictionary, or ask a peer. Then record the word on your Personal Spelling List for future reference. Punctuation: Read the piece aloud to decide if the punctuation creates pauses and stops that sound right. Check another piece of literature or a language text to determine appropriate punctuation. Capitalization: Check for capital letters at the beginnings of sentences and for proper nouns. ** Be honest and fair when conferencing! Remember, it is your job to help your partner become a better writer. ** |
Sample Teacher-student Writing Conference Checklist
Assessment and evaluation should be continuous, occurring both verbally and in writing, and focusing on processes, products, and attitudes. Recordkeeping tools such as observation checklists, anecdotal notes, and writing folders or portfolios provide assessment information about the students' writing processes, abilities, and interests.
A combination of student self-assessment, peer assessment, and teacher assessment should be used. The information collected during assessment can be used to evaluate students' progress at various points in units of study or at intervals in the school year. Checklists included in this curriculum guide are examples only and can be adapted to fit the needs of the teacher or student.
Every form of writing has specific criteria by which it must be assessed or evaluated depending upon the audience, purpose, and format. A short story is different from a letter, and both are different from a poem or report. It is important that students are aware of the specific criteria for the writing format they have chosen. This may be provided to them in the form of a checklist which may be used as a revision checklist or a self-assessment tool, then converted into an evaluation tool for the teacher.
Together, teacher and students should discuss or determine the criteria for specific writing formats. The sample checklists on the following pages include an example of criteria for writing a short story. Criteria identified by teachers and students for poems, paragraphs, reports, and so on may be structured differently according to need and purpose.
It is useful to involve students in activities designed to help them discover that "real" writers have strategies for making meaning. Through such activities students will learn that they also possess many of these skills. Descriptions of two sample activities follow.
Activity #1: Writing Strategies Questionnaire
Activity #2: Writing is ...
Following either of these initial activities, use the students' responses to lead into a discussion about writing and writing process. Help students to understand that writing is a natural way to communicate. Emphasize the importance that writing will have for them during the year. Explain that the teacher and the class will work together, collaborating to learn about writing and to increase their writing abilities.
Although the following points describe writing activity in an exemplary classroom, it should be understood that the writing, reading, speaking, and listening processes are intended to be integrated. Several elements from each process should be at work in all language arts experiences in the classroom.
In the classroom the following should be in evidence: