Toward the Year 2000.
Saskatchewan Education, 1985, p.6.
This framework is intended to encourage teachers to examine their own instructional practices. Reflection on the use of strategies, methods, and skills (Figure 1) may lead teachers to broaden and deepen their repertoires of instructional approaches. Expanding one's repertoire of instructional approaches enhances instructional effectiveness.
Figure 2. identifies and illustrates the interrelationship among the instructional approaches.
The following definitions will clarify the relationships between and among models, strategies, methods and skills.
Instructional Models
Models represent the broadest level of instructional practices and present a philosophical orientation to instruction. Models are used to select and to structure teaching strategies, methods, skills, and student activities for a particular instructional emphasis.
Figure 1.
Instructional Strategies
Within each model several strategies can be used. Strategies determine the approach a teacher may take to achieve learning objectives. Strategies can be classed as direct, indirect, interactive, experiential, or independent.
Instructional Methods
Methods are used by teachers to create learning environments and to specify the nature of the activity in which the teacher and learner will be involved during the lesson. While particular methods are often associated with certain strategies, some methods may be found within a variety of strategies.
Instructional Skills
Skills are the most specific instructional behaviours. These include such techniques as questioning, discussing, direction giving, explaining, and demonstrating. They also include such actions as planning, structuring, focusing, and managing.
Figure 2.
It should be noted that the methods appearing in the diagram are examples only and are not intended to be inclusive of all instructional methods. It should also be noted that some methods could be included within one or more strategies.
This section reviews a sampling of methods identified as appropriate for delivery of the Native Studies curriculum. The Saskatchewan Professional Development Unit (SPDU), and the Saskatchewan Instructional Development and Research Unit (SIDRU) have published a resource series that supports many of the instructional practices suggested throughout this curriculum.
Teachers are encouraged to implement a variety of instructional strategies in order to meet the objectives of a unit, as well as to address individual student interests, needs and strengths.
Instructional methods are grouped within five instructional strategies: Direct, Indirect, Interactive, Experiential, and Independent Study as illustrated in Figure 2.
The direct instruction strategy is highly teacher directed and is among the most commonly used.
Questions are used for a variety of purposes in the classroom, such as assessing learning, developing understanding, encouraging creative response, facilitating critical thinking, increasing awareness about multiple perspectives, and guiding the process of dialectical reasoning.
When using questioning in the classroom, teachers should ask themselves, "Do I...
Adapted from Questioning in the Classroom, SIDRU, 1991.
The classroom lecture is one way to provide a great deal of information in a relatively short period of time. However, a lecture without pupil participation should not exceed more than 20% of total lesson time.
Lectures are more effective when designed to spark group discussion and when main ideas are demonstrated with visual aids.
Effective lecturing is a blend of three types of lectures:
Adapted from: Effective Lecturing in the Classroom, SIDRU, 1992.
The indirect instruction strategy is student centred and is very effective when:
The accumulated knowledge of Aboriginal nations is held in the collective memory of the people. The oral tradition documents history, cultural traditions and values, spiritual beliefs and philosophy, and a rich body of literature.
Teachers must respectfully approach and exercise caution when implementing a storytelling approach in the classroom. Some considerations are:
Many regions of North America have restrictions around when certain stories can be told. Most often, the time for story-telling is after the first frost and before spring. Demonstrating respect for these restrictions may enhance the participation of the Indian and Métis community who have knowledge in this area.
The manner in which oral literature is handled demands knowledge and respect for tradition. Three areas for consideration are the use of ceremonial language, the presentation of the stories and their significance, and the story changes made in the process of packaging for a contemporary market.
The original medium is still the most effective way to deliver a poem, speech, or story. Storytelling is a dynamic process that holds students spell-bound. However, not every teacher is a capable storyteller or an evocative orator. If one is uncomfortable with any aspect of storytelling, local storytellers may be invited to share stories in your classroom. Taped versions of traditional stories are also available. Stories which have been produced as audio-visual and written format by Indian, Inuit, or Métis authors, publishers and producers most often retell a story as closely as possible to a version collected from local Elders.
Adapted from Farrell Racette, Sherry 1989, Unpublished paper.
Ceremonial language and descriptions of sacred ceremonies is not appropriate content for the classroom. It is important not to trivialize the stories and their cultural significance. From a traditional perspective, the oral tradition is viewed as depicting truthful accounts from long ago. Categorizing these stories as fantasy or myths is not appropriate.
Indian legends have been published for the children's market. These written versions of the stories serve a purpose by providing a valuable record of stories that may have otherwise not been available. However, many publications synthesize complex stories which reduces their meaning and value. In addition, in the process of retelling, many authors have incorporated European story forms and elements which are foreign to the original. Teachers should familiarize themselves with the original story forms and text.
For those who are interested in becoming storytellers, in the European tradition, the following steps should be considered:
Case studies refer to assigned scenarios based on real life situations and are used extensively in Native Studies.
The case study approach tells a story about a specific scenario. Its focus is to deal with relevant aspects of a situation, including the way in which diverse perspectives influence the scenario.
Students should be encouraged to determine their own issues and develop case studies that are personally relevant or interesting. The outlines or boundaries of the selected case study are set, in part, by those interested in the case.
The method for conducting the case study varies depending on the scenario selected and the reasons for studying that particular case study.
If the case study research is to be used to aid in the understanding and resolution of a local/national/global problem, it may be appropriate to use a problem-solving/decision-making process. Students might observe, analyze, record, implement, conclude and summarize.
If case studies are used to help students learn about an individual, institution, community, group, or event in a more detailed way, teachers may find the outline for developing a research project useful in setting up a case study.
Inquiry is a technique which involves students in questioning to explore an area of study. It is a process students engage in to investigate and to explain problems. Students collect and test data logically in order to discover why things happen the way they do. It is a student-oriented strategy which requires active participation in questioning events and in putting several factors together (conceptualizing) to explore a hypothesis or theory.
The teacher has an option of facilitating guided or unguided inquiry or a combination. To implement an inquiry approach a teacher may consider the following:
A final stage often included in the inquiry process is reflection. Students analyze their pattern of inquiry by asking:
The process may extend over a period of several days, weeks, or longer.
In order for students to grasp fully the implications that contemporary issues hold for them personally, they must develop a process for examining these issues. Students are shown the importance of evaluating the information they use to understand an issue. They learn the importance of evaluating sources of information, of examining new perspectives, of developing critical thinking skills, and of developing a personal commitment to action with regard to some of the issues.
To what extent is the issue a local problem?
What are the similarities and differences of viewpoints among people on the issue?
What significant social and ethical questions does the issue raise for you?
What degree of social and political tension is created by the issue?
Interactive instruction strategies involve two way communication and rely heavily on discussion and sharing among participants. The interactive instruction strategy allows for a range of groupings which may include total class discussion, small group discussions or projects, or student pairs or triads working on assignments together. Before the group members "set to work" it is important for them to be aware of what they are to accomplish, how much time they have, and what the recording and reporting procedures are.
Brainstorming is a technique for generating ideas. A group, working under ground rules, is encouraged to state any and all possible solutions to a problem. Brainstorming is a way to come up with creative and exciting ideas, and can also be used to get reactions or opinions on an activity, new story, or field trip. Brainstorming is based upon the belief that when a great number of ideas are generated, the chances of uncovering a good idea or solution are increased.
Ground rules are essential for this activity to be effective and successful:
The activity stops when the group runs out of ideas or the allotted time expires. Ask for single word or single phrase items and write everything down. Rules for brainstorming should be posted where all students may see them.
Cooperative learning is an approach where students work together to achieve a group learning goal. Student groups vary in size and use peer interaction to support each others' learning. Depending on the objectives, groups may be academically, linguistically, socially, and culturally heterogenous.
Competition can be a useful tool for motivating students and for encouraging them to excel; however, it can become counter-productive in a course of studies that promotes personal development and requires an atmosphere of mutual trust and respect. Cooperative group learning is an instructional approach which supports directly the aims of the Native Studies by:
For more information on cooperative learning see Incorporating the Common Essential Learnings and The Adaptive Dimension: A Resource Package, Saskatchewan Education, 1991.
Cooperative problem solving provides the opportunity to practise a non-confrontational approach to resolving conflicts and issues. The process is helpful when dealing with inter-personal conflict or for group decision making.
Teachers should model this approach to ensure students can see the value of the process. The following steps and guidelines provide a framework for facilitating cooperative problem solving:
Steps to Cooperative Problem Solving
Guidelines for Cooperative Problem Solving
Adapted from: Four Worlds Development Project. (1988) Unity in Diversity Curriculum Guide. Lethbridge: Four Worlds Development Project, University of Lethbridge.
Talking circles are useful when the topic under consideration has no right or wrong answer, or when people need to share feelings. Moral or ethical issues can be discussed in a non-judgmental climate. The purpose of talking circles is to create a safe environment for students to share their point of view with others. They come to believe that what they say will be listened to and accepted without criticism: they gain an empathetic appreciation for points of view other than their own.
Talking circles may need a facilitator (especially when the process is first introduced) to ensure that the guidelines are being followed. The following guidelines should prove useful to teachers and students:
Adapted with permission from the Four Worlds Development Project. (1982) Sacred Tree Teachers' Guide. Lethbridge: Four Worlds Development Project, University of Lethbridge.
Dialectical Thinking has as its foundation, the pedagogical debate made famous by Socrates. The dialectical approach considers dialogue arising from diverse perspectives. The objective is not to defend a perspective, but to find the position with the greatest evidence to support it.
In Native Studies, the existence of opposing viewpoints towards specific issues is acknowledged. Through dialogue, the merits of these perspectives are methodically analyzed using the dialectical way of thinking.
In the dialectical process, contradictions inherent in an issue are considered in order to arrive at a unified agreement in consideration of all perspectives. The dialectical process allows for a thoughtful examination of issues bearing contradictory truths. It nurtures development of a disposition and ability to view issues from multiple perspectives. The application of a dialectical approach reduces personal and cultural bias thereby building a process for informed decision making through critical thinking.
In the classroom, small discussion groups may serve as a starting point for the dialectical approach.
Stages in the dialectical process include:
Teachers may successfully introduce the dialectical approach in the classroom by demonstrating respect for the existence of a variety of perspectives. By creating a conceptual map of arguments and counter-arguments, teachers can help students approach controversial issues from a position of awareness which precedes thoughtful, logical and defensible
synthesis of possible solutions. The Rule of Three principle allows for the possibility of a third position to be found in the evidence; it recognizes that complete resolution is rarely attainable and that perfection is often beyond reach. To structure dialectical thinking in the classroom:
In Canada, during the historical period prior to European contact, the nature of First Nations participation within families and clans, as well as through local government, reflected a process now known as consensual decision making.
A consensus decision is one accepted by every member of the group, even when it does not represent a personal interest or choice. The assumption of this type of decision making is that judgments are derived from the people affected by the issue, rather than from a set of universal truths which may be used to judge everything. In this way, the issue or problem being considered reflects the reality of the people who are most affected.
To accept the pluralism of truth is a prerequisite for consensual decision-making. In the Ojibwe language, there is no single term for the idea of absolute truth; instead, the term w'daeb-awae which translates as the speaker has cast his/her knowledge or perceptions as far as he/she can is used. Native Studies encourages both students and teachers to consider the process of consensus as a means to gain insight into the perspectives of others.
For Native Studies classrooms, the consensus decision-making process offers a method by which students may engage in a collaborative, creative, and fair assessment of issues. Its intent is to bring all members of the group seeking consensus to a mutually satisfying position. Encouraging consensual decision making ensures that those people affected by decisions have the opportunity for input.
The advantages of decisions arrived at through the process of consensus includes the quality of decision, the discovery of creative solutions, the development of values which demonstrate respect for opinions of others, and cooperation.
As a cooperative learning experience, consensus provides for group participation by:
Adapted from: http:/www.faa.gov/ipds/STUFF/leads2/sld010.htm
Approaches to consensus decision-making differ according to the group, the nature of the decision required and the influence of the group to actually implement the decision. In some cases the consensus decision is merely the first step in a larger problem-solving approach, while at other times, the decision is immediately implemented.
As a variety of approaches to consensus decision-making exist, it is important to facilitate the involvement of participants in defining the process. Some key guidelines for consensual decision making may include:
Consensus decision making provides for the development of knowledge, skill and values which will prove useful in many situations.
consensus.html & ED 312 253 Whitaker, Suzanne; & Fowler, Kathleen. (1988) Consensus Decision-Making.
Experiential learning is inductive, learner centred, and activity oriented. By reflecting on an experience, one is more apt to plan and apply learnings to other contexts. These are critical factors for effective experiential learning.
Oral tradition is considered by many Aboriginal peoples to be the most reliable, authentic and accurate method for historical research in Canada. Oral history consists of an approach that values and respects the keepers of the tradition as much as the information itself.
Oral history interviews are ways of collecting information about the peoples' experiences who were participants in, or witnesses of, particular events. The oral tradition documents national, regional, community, and family histories through ritualized storytelling. It is from such accounts that a sense of identity, values and cultural life is derived.
Interviews or oral history projects have the potential of personalizing the topic under study.
Interviewing people who were participants in the subject leads to the realization that history resides not just in facts and dates on paper, but in the memories of people. Oral history interviews often lead to perspectives which may not be available through any other source.
Students might make inquiries among members of their own family, friends of their parents, neighbours, members of their community, and Elders. It is important to ensure that local protocols are known and respected by all participants in such projects.
Before the interview students should prepare by:
During the interview, students should:
After the interview, students might:
Surveys are useful when there is a need to gather large amounts of information from groups
of people. A sample (group of people) is selected and then a number of questions are asked of each person. Information is collected, results are put together and conclusions are formed. The survey and results are then presented in an appropriate format.
Before beginning the survey, the following points should be considered:
What questions will be asked?
Who will be surveyed?
How will the information be recorded?
Once the surveys are returned, the information is reviewed. Answers are tabulated and percentages calculated based upon the total response. Where open-ended questions are used, answers are reviewed and categorized. Summary statements are written about the categories. Conclusions are then drawn from the figures or summary statements.
The final step is presentation of the results which may be written or verbal and should include a statement of the aim of the survey; a full description of the method used; a display (graph, table, diagram, chart) and written description of the findings; a conclusion or conclusions; and a summary.
Use simulations, games or role plays in education when you want to:
The approach can be a spontaneous re-creation of a situation or event or a highly structured activity, such as those outlined in commercially produced simulations.
Whatever approach is used, the crucial part of simulations, games, or role plays is the debriefing session which follows. Use open-ended discussion techniques, such as the Talking Circle, or teacher generated questions. It is important students have the opportunity to discuss their feelings before they can analyze the cognitive aspects of the activity.
Independent study refers to the range of instructional methods which are provided to foster the development of individual student initiative, self reliance, and self-improvement.
Independent learning has implications for responsible decision making. Individuals are expected to analyze problems, reflect, make decisions and take purposeful actions. To take responsibility for their lives in times of rapid social change, students need to acquire life-long learning capability. Independent learning enables individuals to respond to the changing demands.
Learning contracts communicate plans of intended learning objectives developed by the student alone or in conjunction with the teacher. Students agree to complete assignments, or they may, with teacher approval, select their own topics of study, and assume a major part of the responsibility for forming objectives, developing and selecting activities, and securing materials needed to complete the activities.
Students should always be offered some general guidelines. A series of teacher-generated questions may serve to organize the contract-development process.
A learning contract provides a method of individualizing instruction and developing student responsibility.
A journal is one way to help students organize their thoughts about what is happening as they move through new classroom experiences and course materials. Students make regular written entries which are usually dated.
When using journals to teach students how to organize their thoughts:
Journals are never shared with the class without the individual's permission; even then, he/she may choose to have the teacher share it, anonymously. These general rules of journal ownership and confidentiality should be clearly stated.
Allow follow-up time for journal entries immediately after class discussion. Initial teacher guidance is often crucial. Ask open-ended questions so as to stimulate the students' thoughts, feelings and ideas.
Journal entries may include poems, short stories, artwork, questions or any individual comments that are relevant to the topic under study.
Periodically, and at the end of the year, ask the students to reread their journals, and look for specific instances of their own growth and change.
It would be beneficial if the teacher kept a similar journal and occasionally shared entries with the class. In this way the students can appreciate that the teacher can learn with them, and is willing to share with them.
Using a variety of journal types to reflect on readings, presentations, guest speakers, and lessons encourages growth to more complex thinking skills.
Journal types that may be used in Native Studies include:
A dialogical journal is a continuous process that allows students to monitor the process of their own discovery. This experience creates a dialogue in which a dialectical process occurs. Ideas are structured through the use of focus questions and formats to organize thoughts.
Using a notebook or loose-leaf binder, divide the page into half. On the right-hand side, students keep a journal of any type; a reading log with notes, quotes and responses, reactions to the day's class, guest speaker, activity, a day book or an idea log. On the left-hand side, students make notes on these entries in the form of questions, editorializing, summary sentences and paraphrases. The facing pages are in "dialogue" with each other creating a dialectical process.
To prepare for dialogical journals spend class time having students generate written dialogue to each other about a Native Studies reading, lecture or experience. Dialogical journals are a useful tool for developing students' critical thinking.
Adapted from: Sheila Thorne ED 343-653
Students are required to infer meaning beyond what is stated. They are expected to relate the meaning to what is being studied.
Students are required to infer meaning beyond what is stated. They are expected to consider the people who are involved in a focus of study and reflect upon what their perspectives are, what their role is and how they are affected by the issues.
Students are required to go beyond inference. They are asked to apply the issue to their own lives and consider how they are affected. They may be assigned different roles to combine the character analysis journal with this version. Doing so will deepen their understanding of the complexity of factors which motivate people in certain ways.
Students are expected to go beyond inference and application to analyze a problem and create a solution. Group creative problem-solving processes may be debriefed through this type of journal writing.
Benefits of Journal Writing
Adapted from: Edwards, Phyllis R. (1992) Using Dialectical Journals to Teach Thinking Skills. Journal of Reading 35,4 p. 312--316.
Research projects are an integral part of Native Studies 30. Students may be involved in research projects individually, as partners, and as members of small groups.
The acquisition of research skills and strategies is developmental across the grades. A full range of research and study skills encompasses much more than simply locating and retrieving information. A full continuum involves processing information through extraction, analysis and synthesis, as well as communicating the information through a variety of techniques and formats.
The following chart illustrates the range of learning skills students require to comprehend, manipulate, and apply information in research projects.
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Finding Information
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Processing Information
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Sharing Information
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oral presentation audio-visual presentation |