Foundational Objectives
Students will:
The Movement Perspective distinguishes Physical Education from other curricula. It is the vehicle that enables the Active Living and Personal-Social-Cultural perspectives to be actualized. The Basic Movement Patterns, variables, principles and strategies are the organizers for instruction.
The Basic Movement Patterns are building blocks. Once they are learned they can be combined to become the more complex skills used in settings such as those found in sports, games, dance and gymnastics.
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Movement Skills |
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Sending |
Throwing Striking |
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Receiving |
Catching Collecting |
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Accompanying |
Dribbling Carrying |
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Evading |
Dodging Faking Screening |
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Locomotions |
Displacement of the body from one place to another |
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Landings |
On feet On hands While rotating |
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Statics |
Balances Supports Hangs |
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Swings |
From supports From hangs |
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Rotations |
About the axes of the body
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Springs |
From the arms From the legs |
The Basic Movement Patterns are generic in the sense that they are not limited to any single sport or activity. For example, Rotation movement skills and understanding of the concept Rotation can be developed in and through a variety of Educational Gymnastics activities, in and through a variety of Educational Games activities, in and through Rhythmic and Dance, Alternative Environment and Individual and Dual activities.
Most sports and activities are made up of combinations of Basic Movement Patterns. The game of softball, for example, comprises primarily Sending, Receiving and Locomotions. The game of basketball is made up of Sending, Receiving, Accompanying (a teammate or the ball), Evading (opposing team players) and Locomotions (running). Gymnastics activities consist of a variety of Locomotions, Landings, Statics, Rotations, Swings and Springs.
What changes from one sport or activity to another is:
The Sending movement pattern (overarm action) which is used to throw a ball is essentially the same movement pattern that is used to send (throw) a ball with a scoop, to send (strike) the ball with a paddle bat, to (send) serve or spike a volleyball, to (send) throw the ball when playing water polo, etc. The Sending movement pattern is essentially the same in all these examples. Sending is the concept at the center, the constant. The ways, contexts and environments in which the concept is used change from one activity to another.
The movement skills that evolve from a Basic Movement Pattern are mechanically similar—they share the same mechanical goal. For example, all the movement skills associated with the Basic Movement Pattern, Sending, share the same common goal of imparting force to an object. (In some contexts, for example in judo and karate, the force may be imparted to a body.) Similarly, all Landings—whether it is a landing on the feet, on the hands or while rotating—share the same mechanical goal of absorbing the force gradually over an optimum amount of time and body surface.
The expectation is that after having learned the concept, Sending, for example, students will transfer what they have learned to other skills and contexts where this movement pattern is used (e.g., the badminton and tennis overhead smash, the volleyball serve, the javelin throw). Students who understand how to absorb force when landing on the feet should then be able to use that knowledge in other situations requiring the absorption of force.
Using the Basic Movement Patterns (BMPs) to teach physical education:
BMPs are revisited at different times during the year.
When a Basic Movement Pattern is introduced for the first time, several lessons may be required for students to become familiar with the major ideas. Thereafter, the movement pattern is revisited for brief periods at different times during the year. These learning opportunities are distributed throughout the year rather than being massed together (during a three-week unit, for example). Sending movement skills, such as the underarm and overarm throws, might be the focus of three or four consecutive lessons when they are introduced during the second week in September. These two skills could then be revisited a few days later, and again during the last week in September. They could be revisited again a few times in October, and so on throughout the year.
BMPs are revisited for varying lengths of time.
Revisitations might last only a few minutes, they might take up half a lesson, or they may comprise an entire lesson. Landings, for example, could be incorporated into a lesson in several ways. They could be performed:
Some revisitations may extend over several lessons.
BMPs are revisited in different ways, contexts and environments.
The Basic Movement Patterns are revisited sometimes in the same—and sometimes in very different—ways, contexts and environments as before.
Springs, for example, can be presented through the game of hopscotch and revisited in the slightly different context of jump rope activities. Springing from the feet off a beat board or an inner tube, springing from the hands from a box horse (vaulting) and springing using pogo sticks are other ways and contexts in which movement skills and fitness components (muscular strength and endurance) related to Springs could be developed.
Some Basic Movement Patterns are taught and learned better in some contexts and environments than in others. An Educational Gymnastics context provides more opportunities for learning Swings, Landings and Rotations than does a games context. On the other hand, an Educational Games context is more conducive to the development of Sending and Receiving skills. Some Locomotion (e.g., dance steps) and Accompanying (moving to a particular beat) skills are best learned in the context of Rhythmics and Dance.
Basic Movement Patterns (concepts) may also be revisited cognitively—without movement. These revisitations may consist of having students analyze movement skills, engage in concept attainment activities, explore manifestations of the concept in other subject areas, engage in visualization (mental imagery), prepare concept maps/webs and so on.
BMPs are revisited and reinforced at each grade level
The same ten Basic Movement Patterns are revisited at each grade level; however, it is the students’ developmental level—rather than age or grade level—that is used as the primary guide in selecting and designing learning experiences.
The Movement Variables are used to expand students’ awareness of:
The movement content of the curriculum provides a framework around which the Movement Variables may be organized.
The primary objective when teaching the Movement Variables is to assist students to understand these concepts. The movement variables are ideas that have transfer value. However, before students can transfer these concepts to a variety of situations, they must first have at least a basic understanding of them. As students develop movement skills, their understanding of the Movement Variables increases.
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The Four Categories of Movement Variables |
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Body "What" the body does. What is the body doing? |
Space "Where" the body moves. Where is the movement occurring? |
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Effort "How" the body performs the movement. What is the quality of the movement? |
Relationships "With Whom" and "With What" the body moves. In relation to whom and to what does the body move? |
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Movement principles are concepts related to the efficiency and effectiveness of movement. They can be applied in a variety of situations. Following are some of the movement principles related to stability and force that are emphasized in the curriculum.
Stability
Example: You are less likely to lose your balance or be pushed off balance when standing with knees flexed than when standing with legs straight.
Example: You are less likely to fall or to lose your balance when you’re on hands and knees on the ground than when you’re standing on the tips of your toes.
Example: If you are leaning forward with most of your weight on your toes and someone pushes you from behind, it will require less force to make you fall than if you were not leaning.
Force
Example: Kicking a ball with the instep (laces) such that the force is applied underneath will cause the ball to travel upward into the air.
height, there is less jarring when the landing is performed on a soft mat and the knees are flexed, than when the knees are not flexed (or flexed very little) and the landing is on a hard surface.
The intent in teaching movement principles is to have students understand and use these "big ideas" in other situations where it is useful to do so. Entire units and lessons may be organized around a movement principle, or they may be integrated into units and lessons that focus on other concepts. Lessons organized around the concepts of Receiving or Landings lend themselves well to the study of force absorption whereas Statics is particularly conducive to exploration of the principles of stability.
Movement principles are introduced and then revisited and reinforced at each grade level, in different ways, contexts and environments throughout the year.
Movement strategies are ideas related to the application of movement in cooperative and competitive (offensive and defensive) relationships with others. They are ideas regarding what to do and when to do it that can be applied in a variety of contexts.
Many movement strategies can be taught and learned in games contexts. David Belka, in his book Teaching Children Games: Becoming A Master Teacher, has grouped games into five categories. For each category, a number of strategies that are common to all the game forms in that category are provided. In the following table only one strategy is listed for each game category.
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Game Category |
Examples of Strategies |
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Tag games |
Staying balanced, with weight on the front part of the foot and with feet shoulder-width apart, ready to move in any direction |
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Target games |
Not being hurried |
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Net and Wall games |
Sending objects to open areas |
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Invasion (territorial) games |
Creating open space and repositioning to gain advantage over an opponent |
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Fielding (bat and ball) games |
Sending objects to open areas |
The intent in teaching movement strategies, as concepts common to many activities, is for students to be able to transfer these strategies from one activity to another—to apply them in a variety of situations. Hitting a ball to open space is a strategy students should be able generalize to badminton, tennis, volleyball and to other activities. Once a student has learned the concept of zone defense, this strategy can then be applied in soccer, hockey, basketball and other activities.
Movement strategies are introduced and then revisited and reinforced at each grade level, in different ways, contexts and environments, at different times during the year.
In any given class, students are likely to be at different levels of movement skill development. To match the range of abilities of the students, learning experiences to develop the Basic Movement Patterns may be organized into three levels of movement skill learning—Beginner, Intermediate and Advanced.
Basic Movement Patterns and Performance Cues
Basic Movement Patterns can be broken down into performance cues at the beginner, intermediate and advanced levels. Performance cues are valuable for students and teachers. They provide information about specific things for teachers to look for when students are performing a skill in a certain movement pattern area. For example, in the chart on page 26, Performance Cues that Appear Most Frequently, under the headings, Sending and Beginner, note that when a beginner is executing a sending pattern—and this could mean throwing a ball or Frisbee, serving a volleyball or hitting a ball with a bat—this beginner is primarily concerned with making sure that his or her body faces the direction of the target and that the feet are placed in such a way that the body feels balanced or stable.
On the other hand, the intermediate student is comfortable with the four performance cues stated under beginner and is focusing on five other cues with a priority placed on weight transfer. The advanced sender has the performance cues from beginner and intermediate under control and is working on clearing the hips and other more sophisticated performance cues.
Notice something else—the beginner’s performance cues are all related to the Movement Variables, Body and Space. This means that the beginner is focusing on two areas:
The intermediate’s focus is still on space but more on Force. When the focus is on Force, this means that the focus is on the application of power in order to move the body (starting and stopping) or applying power to a game object (badminton smash versus drop shot). However, it is useless for the intermediate student to engage in skill development at that level until the beginner performance cues are internalized. Once the performance cues are internalized, it means the student no longer has to consciously think about and concentrate on them.
The same applies to the advanced student. This student is working at this level because the performance cues for beginner and intermediate are no longer a concern. This student’s focus is somewhat on Force but more on Relationships. Here the focus is on the adjustment made among Body, Space and Force to change or further refine skill performance and strategies (for example, applying the appropriate spin on a forehand tennis shot so that it "dies" immediately after bouncing).
This information can be summarized as follows:
Performance cues and movement patterns have major implications for teaching physical education:
Throughout the document there is reference to both refining cues and performance cues. It is important to clarify the difference in terminology so teachers can make the best use of this information. The "refining cues" are based on the "performance cues" listed on the following pages.
The term "performance cues" provides specific information to teachers, indicating what they can look for in students’ performance to best support student learning of the skills within the Basic Movement Patterns.
The term "refining cues" refers to the information teachers give the students, in language they can understand, to improve the quality of their performance and help them progress toward an advanced level of skill. (e.g., Landings—when you complete a landing on your feet, you should finish in a position that resembles a person on a motorcycle.)
Performance Cues that Appear Most Frequently
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Beginner |
Intermediate |
Advanced |
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Sending |
Body alignment (base of support) Centre of gravity Visual contact Point of release or contact Limbs in opposition |
Weight transfer Pre-stretch (wind-up) Range of motion Length of pre-stretch and follow through |
Clearing hips Motion/movement adjustment because of velocity Action of non-throwing/striking arm |
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Receiving |
Visual tracking Presentation of target Absorption Control |
Range of absorption Hand-eye coordination Flight pathway interception point Direction of body alignment (base of support) |
Setting up for next move Velocity of motion Centre of gravity |
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Accompanying |
Control Visual contact Balance Absorption |
Visual field Protection of game object Velocity (coordination of body and game object) |
Adjustment to external variables Pattern variation Misdirection (faking) |
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Evading |
Balance maintained by upper body Visual contact Coordination Centre of gravity Distribution of body weight |
Change of direction (initiated by foot plant) Push off Anticipation |
Faking Reaction time Peripheral vision Kinesthetic awareness |
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Locomotions |
Foot strike patterns Limbs in opposition Direction of body alignment Centre of gravity |
Propulsion Change of direction Methods of locomotion (developmental movement patterns) Generating velocity |
All body parts Controlling velocity Combination of movement patterns |
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Landings |
Base of support Centre of gravity |
Absorption of body force/force vectors Body alignment (base of support) Pre-stretch (preparation for spring) |
Altering base of support Visual imagery Isometric contraction |
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Statics |
Centre of gravity in relation to base of support Coordination Spatial awareness Directional forces (force vectors) |
Kinesthetic awareness (especially in inversion) Mental preparation Concentration |
Altering base of support Visual imagery Isometric contraction |
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Swings |
Directional forces (force vectors) Centre of gravity Body control Spatial awareness |
Pathways Generating velocity |
Controlling velocity Adjusting/controlling directional forces (force vectors) |
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Rotations |
Centre of gravity Limbs in motion Maintaining equilibrium |
Directional forces (force vectors) Approach velocity |
Summation of forces Various axes |
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Springs |
Body alignment Centre of gravity Pre-stretch Release |
Coordinated limb movement to generate force Range of motion Generating velocity Controlling directional forces (force vectors) |
Efficiently changing from one force vector to another Controlling velocity Optimal angles Influence of body parts to change momentum within a force vector |
Explanation of Performance Cues
Sending
Sending – Beginner
Body Alignment
For the best results, the body faces in the direction of the target.
The base of support must be wide enough to provide stability. Base of support means the body parts in contact with the floor—in most cases, the feet.
Things to know about stability and mobility:
Limbs (Working) in Opposition
This means that a right-handed person will have the left foot forward when throwing or striking an object; a left-handed person will have the right foot forward.
This allows for more stability during the contact. Students often say they "feel more comfortable" or that this "feels better" than same arm/same foot.
Visual Contact
Beginner students must actually see the object as it is being struck or thrown.
Beginners tend to peek. They look to see where the object has gone before they have contacted it.
Students who have progressed to the intermediate or advanced stages will sometimes get sloppy with this performance cue. This requires a return to the basics to find out what has broken down. It may very well be right here.
Point of Release or Contact
Beginners need to spend time discovering where the best place is to contact or release the object.
The direction an object takes is a line tangent to that in which the hand, bat, paddle bat, stick is moving at impact.
This direction is controlled to a large degree by the wrist…another reason correct grip is important.
Sending – Intermediate
Intermediate performance cues are based on a progression from beginner cues. It is pointless for a student to move from beginner to intermediate activities when the latter depend so closely on the former. Students need to be provided with activities that allow them to perform at levels appropriate to their abilities. The class is planned around the students and not the other way around.
Weight Transfer
The base of support is enlarged by moving the feet into a forward/backward or staggered position. An enlarged base of support allows for the transfer of weight in the direction of the intended target.
When contact is made with the object, the large muscle groups of the body must be moving in the direction of the target. In order to accomplish this, the weight must move from back to front. This applies to both the body and, for example, the paddle bat. Effectiveness is lost when the player wants the object to go to point A but, on contact, the shoulders are pointing at B, the paddle bat or stick face at C.
Wind-up (Pre-Stretch)
If any "oomph" is to be put into the contact, the muscles must be relaxed until contact is made. It is the contracting or tightening of the muscles that gives the release or contact its force. In the advanced stages of motor skill development, the pre-stretch or wind-up is critical in that it allows the student a choice of what kind of skill to use (for example, a hard kick/soft pass using a soccer ball).
Balance must be maintained. If balance is lost, then the attempt at increasing the range of motion and speed becomes counterproductive.
The length of the follow through often contributes to greater accuracy due to longer time being spent in contact with the object.
Range of Motion
The length of the back swing increases and the whole arc or line that the arm or lever follows enlarges. This allows for more choices when deciding on a skill.
Maximum range of motion allows for more time between the start of the swing and the contact/ release; thus, the force at contact/release is increased. A player must learn to use range of motion effectively depending on the desired outcome.
Use of wrist snap also determines force and direction of flight. If a wrist snap is to be used effectively, the correct grip must be used at all times.
Range of motion increases when the wrist is cocked on the back swing.
Follow through allows for smooth flow of the skill and for appropriate force to be applied to the object. For example, a complete follow through is used on a tennis serve when the desired outcome is an unreturnable serve. Less follow through is used when executing a drop shot in badminton.
The longer the lever (racquet, arm, leg) at the time of contact or release, the faster the action. This is why students are taught to reach high when hitting a ball overhead with a paddle bat.
If a paddle bat is used as an extension of the arm, the player may hit an object faster and farther than when the arm is bent. This means that the distance the paddle bat head is from the body has an impact on the shot.
Length of Wind-up and Follow Through
An increase in the range of motion causes an increase in velocity; for example, the farther back the student takes the paddle bat, the faster the ball tends to fly.
Sending – Advanced
Again, these performance cues depend on the proper execution of the ones in Beginner and Intermediate.
Clearing Hips
Moving the hips so that the navel faces the direction the object is to go. When the student kicks a soccer ball, on the back swing the hip opens away from the ball. As the leg moves forward, the hip comes through in the direction of the target.
Motion/Movement Adjustment Because of Velocity
As muscles are used faster, more force is generated.
The student comes to realize that large muscle groups (such as shoulders, buttocks) play a major role in applying force. Just because the arm or leg is doing much of the movement does not mean that those muscles are the only or even the primary ones being used. This is a common misconception.
How large muscle groups are being used is also a logical place to look when determining the cause(s) of mechanical breakdowns by more experienced players. At times, these students find themselves losing their "punch". They have come to rely on weaker muscles to do a big job. A return to the basic performance cues and a review of why each one is important usually rectify this.
Action of Non-Throwing/Striking Arm
This arm acts by pulling or exerting force in a direction opposite to the throwing/striking arm. This helps with shoulder rotation and adds more force on release/contact. An example would be throwing a ball overhand. As the throwing arm comes around, the non-throwing arm pulls down, increasing the amount of shoulder rotation.
Receiving
Receiving – Beginner
Visual Tracking
The eyes must be kept on the approaching object. No peeking. As the eyes watch the object, the body will make adjustments (such as moving laterally, forward and back). This usually means moving the feet to get into position.
Presentation of Target
The body faces the direction from which the object is coming.
Absorption
The body moves into position before the object arrives, in preparation for contact.
Moving the feet to the approaching object instead of simply reaching for it allows for better contact and a faster recovery. Moving the feet keeps the centre of gravity inside the base of support, thereby maintaining stability. More advanced players may develop a lunge technique which, unlike a reach, still allows the centre of gravity to stay inside the base of support.
Control
The face of the paddle bat or stick must not deviate from facing the direction the object is to go once received.
Proper grip is critical.
Receiving – Intermediate
Amount of Absorption
Refers to the amount of give by the receiving surface. For example, during paddle bat activity, if the student holds the paddle bat firmly, the ball will go much further after leaving the paddle bat than if the shot is cushioned a bit. When receiving a ball, the hands cushion the ball.
Hand-Eye Coordination
The intermediate student has a better idea of where the object is in relation to the body and paddle bat, stick or foot. The paddle bat/stick/foot (instead of the body) ends up being positioned in the space where contact with the object is to occur. Notice how beginners often overrun the object, swing with the
paddle bat/stick/foot too close to the body or end up having to really reach to make contact with the object.
Interception Point
Intermediate students are able to judge at what point during the flight of the object contact should be made. A forehand using a paddle bat is contacted after the ball has bounced and close to the top of its flight path.
For maximum force, the object must be contacted at the point of highest/farthest reach.
The student must consider the hand, bat, etc.to be extensions of the arm and make adjustments accordingly. If maximum force is achieved with full extension of the arm, what would the student do to decrease the amount of force? Is there more than one thing a student could do?
Direction of Body Alignment (Base of Support)
With experience and increasing confidence, students are able to gather information from an opponent’s body language and assess which shots are the opponent’s favourites. This allows them to use centre of gravity principles more effectively. Advanced students begin to anticipate shots and angles and cheat, that is, lean to certain sides of their bodies in order to move quickly in certain directions. They have made a decision to give up some stability in order to become more mobile.
Receiving – Advanced
Setting up for Next Move
Is the student setting up for rapid execution of his or her next shot? This decision is made based on body language telegraphed from the opposing student plus knowledge of the student’s strengths and weaknesses. At this level, the student must be able to "read the situation."
Velocity of Motion
With increased velocity, the reception must be more exact. For example, to receive and return a soccer ball, all performance cues previously discussed will come into play, plus accurate anticipation and reaction on the part of the receiver.
Centre of Gravity
At this level, the student may have to begin absorption of the shot in an off-balance manner.
Accompanying
Accompanying – Beginner
Control
The student is able to keep the object under control as she or he moves.
The student understands, for instance, how hard to contact the soccer ball with the side of the foot without letting it get away. She or he understands that, when dribbling a ball and moving quickly around the gymnasium, the student must push the ball a bit ahead each time to prevent bumping into or over-running the ball.
Visual Contact
Beginning students must actually see the hand contact the ball and/or the foot contact the soccer ball.
Beginners tend to peek. This means they tend to direct their attention towards other stimuli (the student trying to take the ball away, the goal posts at the end of the field) instead of watching, at least peripherally, the object being manipulated. Use of peripheral vision is probably an indicator that the student has moved to the upper beginner level for this pattern and possibly even to the intermediate level.
Students who have progressed to the intermediate or advanced stages will sometimes get sloppy with this performance cue. This requires a return to the basics to find out what has broken down. It may very well be right here.
Balance
The student retains a balanced stance so that it is possible to stop quickly, and start or change direction while maintaining control of the game object. She or he should be able to stickhandle to the left or right and maintain control of the object.
Absorption
Beginning students will need time to experiment and practise with equipment to see how much absorption is required to get certain results. For example, when bouncing a ball, children tend to slap at the ball instead of allowing the ball to move smoothly upwards from the floor into the softer, slightly cupped hand.
Accompanying – Intermediate
Visual Field
At the intermediate stage, a student should be able to track the object using peripheral vision while maintaining a broad field of vision (that is, panoramic view of the playing field). It is not necessary for an intermediate student to have eye contact with the object at all times in order to control or manipulate it properly.
Protection of Game Object
The game object should be kept close to the body whether it is being carried, kicked or dribbled. The farther the game object is allowed to get away from the body, the greater the chance of the student losing control or possession.
The student also practices keeping his or her body in between the game object and the closest opposing student. An example would be during soccer activities where the student controls the ball with the foot farthest from the nearest opposing student.
Coordination of Body and Game Object
The body and the game object must work together as a unit. They must move along the playing surface at a rate that keeps the skill under control. For example, the student who is dribbling the ball around the gymnasium must keep it not only out in front, but dribble it at a rate so she or he does not overrun the ball or get too far behind it. The student must now be able to change speeds as well as direction while maintaining control of the game object.
Accompanying – Advanced
Adjustment to External Variables
An advanced student will be able to use cues provided from other players or the specific situation itself to make judgments and then take action. That is, he or she will be able to plan the next move on a proactive rather than reactive basis. For example, an advanced student will dribble the ball past another student on the student’s weaker side.
Pattern Variation
The player adjusts the accompanying pattern according to various factors and situations. These factors might include playground conditions or other students’ actions.
A student can vary the distance of the kick as he or she dribbles it down the field. The student dribbling the ball may switch from one side of a student to the other with a crossover dribble.
Faking (Misdirection)
The advanced player is able to assess external cues and use his or her centre of gravity, visual tracking and velocity to fake movement in one direction and go in another. An example in a tag game would be a student faking to the left around a classmate and then suddenly going to the right.
Evading
Evading – Beginner
Balance Maintained by Upper Body
The student will use arm extension and trunk angle to assist in controlling the body during an evasive movement.
Visual Contact
Beginners often keep their eyes focused on the direction they intend to go. As their skills develop, they learn to focus on the person they are attempting to evade and use peripheral vision when planning the evasive tactic.
Coordination
Upper body tilt will compensate for lower body direction and relative position of the body’s centre of gravity.
Upper limbs will often be operating in opposition to lower limbs. If the left leg is forward, the right arm will often be forward. The upper body generally reacts to the lower body.
Distribution of Body Weight
Beginners tend to telegraph an evasive maneuver by moving the centre of gravity to the side they intend to go. They soon learn to keep their weight evenly distributed over their feet until the evasive move begins. This equal weight distribution also allows for more effective faking to one side before moving to the other.
Evading – Intermediate
Change of Direction (Initiated by Foot Plant)
A square corner is sharper and faster than a round one. A change in direction is initiated by a definite foot plant that creates a pivot point around which the body can move. The foot plant is executed by the foot on the non-evading side. Beginners tend to run large arcs around an opponent. They begin their move too soon and take too long to perform it. Intermediate students wait longer to initiate a move, then make it more quickly and sharply.
Push Off
The foot plant assists the body in initiating momentum and direction by allowing a solid point from which to push. The push off helps the student maintain speed while changing direction.
Anticipation
Intermediate students are performing at a level where they can begin to read the situation, picking up cues. These cues allow them to make informed decisions about what type of evasive maneuver to use and when. They are also better able to adjust the speed or force of the evasive maneuver.
Evading – Advanced
Faking (Misdirection)
Advanced students are able to assess external cues such as the opposition’s body language and then use the centre of gravity, visual tracking and velocity to fake movement in one direction, then go in another.
Reaction Time
The advanced student is able to react instantaneously to external cues by processing a lot of information at one time. This information may come in the form of body language from the opposition and past experiences in similar situations. The student uses this information to make appropriate decisions. This is commonly called "playing smart."
Quick reactions allow advanced students to maintain overall execution speed. For example, a student who is dribbling a ball around the gymnasium can quickly evade a classmate while maintaining speed.
Peripheral Vision
The advanced student can use peripheral vision to assess game situations and make decisions. Use of peripheral vision enables the student to appear to give total visual attention to one thing when planning to do something else. For example, the offensive student playing a modified floor hockey game may focus on an imaginary or real receiver to the left thus giving the defensive student the cue that the puck or the student is preparing to move that way. Anticipating this, the defensive student adjusts his or her position accordingly. This frees up the right side which, in reality, is the direction the offensive student intended to go in the first place.
Body Awareness (Kinesthetic Awareness)
The advanced student has the ability to feel where his or her body parts are in relation to the rest without actually looking at them. As the student’s skills develop, this awareness extends to include a feel for the object (stick, ball, puck) in relation to the body as well as an awareness of other players and their relation to his or her personal space.
Locomotions
Locomotions – Beginner
Foot Strike Patterns
Moving forward – heel/ball
Moving backward – ball
Moving sideways- ball/heel/ball
Limbs in Opposition
The dominant foot is the power foot (push off).
Direction of Body Alignment
The number of crossover steps used.
Centre of Gravity
The centre of gravity is kept over the base of support.
Locomotions – Intermediate
Propulsion
Foot strike occurs in the direction of intended movement and occurs with force and strong intention.
Change of Direction
Plant foot that is away from the intended direction of movement. This is often called "planting the outside foot."
Pivoting.
Methods of Locomotion
Get all the limbs moving in the direction the body needs to go.
Generating Velocity
Begin the movement with short, quick steps.
Locomotions – Advanced
All Body Parts
Must act as a unit (gracefully).
Controlling Velocity
Stopping quickly.
Combination of Movement
Changing direction quickly.
Landings
Landings – Beginner
Base of Support
The wider the base of support, the more stability. Beginners often perform landings with both feet or hands contacting the supporting surface (ground, floor, beam) at the same time. The feet are usually spaced about shoulder width apart.
Centre of Gravity
Upon contact with the supporting surface, the student bends at the waist (drops his or her centre of gravity). The closer the centre of gravity is to the base of support (the closer the mid-section is to the feet or hands), the greater the stability.
At the beginner level the centre of gravity is usually over the base of support. If for some reason this is not the case, the arms or upper body often tilt to maintain balance.
Landings – Intermediate
Absorption of Body Force/Force Vectors
Typically, the greater the force vector to be absorbed, the greater the range of motion to absorb that force. For example, a person will often lower the centre of gravity more by bending at the knees and hips when landing from a height of two metres than when from a one-third metre height.
Body Alignment (Base of Support)
The student is able to perform successfully with a narrower base of support. This is most often achieved by extending the base of support in the direction of the horizontal force vector (a one-foot stop (landing) or changing direction with a foot plant when evading).
Pre-Stretch (Preparation for Spring)
After the landing has occurred, there is a relaxing of large and small muscle groups. This relaxation phase is necessary as the student often is immediately preparing for another move such as a spring. In order for the student to generate any kind of "oomph" the muscles must be relaxed so that they can then contract and generate force.
Landings – Advanced
Change of Direction
The advanced student will often land so that he or she is ready to change direction. This change of direction frequently involves vertical and horizontal force vectors (approach to volleyball spike, second baseman’s pivot on a double play throw to first base).
Influence of Limbs
At the advanced level, the student learns to use his or her limbs for stability on the landing. For example, holding the arms out in front of the body while absorbing the force of the landing increases the likelihood that the individual will maintain balance.
Coordination
This refers to coordinating the various body parts so that the body stays under control without a significant loss in speed or force. This is especially important when preparing to change the direction of a force vector (from horizontal to vertical or vertical to horizontal).
Statics
Statics – Beginner
Centre of Gravity in Relation to Base of Support
Beginners need to focus on keeping the centre of gravity well inside the base of support for maximum stability.
The larger the base of support, the easier it is to maintain balance.
An example would be a headstand where a triangle formed by the head and hands forms the base of support and the hips are kept in an area above that triangle.
Coordination
The trunk and all limbs must be coordinated and work in opposition in order to maintain a static or dynamic balance.
Spatial Awareness
The beginner finds it necessary to focus on where his or her trunk and limbs are in relation to a confined space. The beginner finds it easier to perform statics that keep all parts of the body close to each other.
Directional Forces (Force Vectors)
At the beginner level the force vectors are usually unidirectional (if they are horizontal they all go in the same horizontal direction).
Statics – Intermediate
Kinesthetic Awareness (Especially in Inversion)
The intermediate student focuses on what the trunk and limbs are doing in relation to each other and space in general.
Kinesthetic awareness is particularly important when performing in the inverted or upside down position. It is not uncommon for students to experience a sense of confusion when working in the inverted position due to new visual and sensory cues.
The limbs are often operating in opposition to each other (left foot and right arm forward).
Mental Preparation
Statics at the intermediate level require students to have a well-defined picture in their minds of the activity to be performed. Visualization helps the students make a mental commitment to the skill and increases the chances of success.
Concentration
Because the intermediate student is working with an increasing number of variables, it is critical that she or he focuses totally on what is to be performed. Outside distractions are generally counter-productive.
Statics – Advanced
Altering Base of Support
An advanced student is able to maintain his or her centre of gravity over a smaller base of support and still maintain balance. An example would be a one-handed handstand. The base of support (the size of the supporting hand) is very small.
Hanging rearways (buttocks facing up) on the rings with the body parallel to the floor puts the centre of gravity below the base of support (the hands clasping the rings). Regardless, the premise remains the same—the centre of gravity must remain over the base of support to maintain balance.
Visual Imagery
The student creates a mental picture of the performance. She or he visualizes the proper execution of the activity, often reviewing it a number of times.
This prepares the muscles to perform an activity that the mind has already rehearsed.
Isometric Contraction
Statics are both motionless and sustained. The student learns to use strong, tight muscles to hold the trunk and limbs in an immobile position.
Swings
Swings – Beginner
Directional Forces (Force Vectors)
Fixed centre refers to the point(s) where the body is in contact with the bar.
The student is aware of the centrifugal force that pulls his or her body away from the fixed centre of the swing and is able to manage that force.
Centre of Gravity
The centre of gravity is kept as far from the base as possible to maximize the effect of gravitational pull.
At the height of a 360° swing, the centre of gravity is kept at the maximum height of the bar.
Body Control
The beginner is able to control force vectors by changing the centre of gravity during the swing.
Spatial Awareness
The beginner is able to discern where the swing will take him or her. Is the space large enough for the swing? Will the swing be suitable for the desired effect?
Swings – Intermediate
Pathways
In order to maintain a pathway, velocity must be maintained.
Generating Velocity
Swing velocity increases as the centre of gravity moves closer to the fixed centre of the swing.
Swing velocity can be generated by pivoting the body at major joints (hips and knees).
Swings – Advanced
Controlling Velocity
The student is able to increase or decrease velocity by extending or shortening the body (piking or bending at the knees and hips).
Adjusting/Controlling Directional Forces (Force Vectors)
Changing grip at the same time the swing velocity dissipates allows for a change/reversal in swing direction.
Rotations
Rotations – Beginner
Centre of Gravity
The centre of gravity must rotate around the axis of rotation.
Limbs in Motion
Keeping limbs close to the body helps to stabilize the rotation.
Maintaining Equilibrium
All body parts must remain in rotational line in order to maintain the dynamic balance or equilibrium of the rotation.
Rotations – Intermediate
Directional Forces (Force Vectors)
The closer the centre of gravity is to the rotational axis the greater will be the rotational velocity.
Approach to Velocity
Tightening the rotation (making the body smaller) can increase the effect of approach velocity. Lengthening the rotation (straightening the body) can lessen this effect.
Rotations – Advanced
Summation of Forces
Centrifugal force increases as rotational velocity increases. As these two forces increase, control of the body during rotation is more demanding.
Various Axes
In order to rotate successfully around two axes simultaneously (for example, a twisting flip) pathways and velocities are critical considerations.
Springs
Springs – Beginner
Body Alignment
The body should be in a ready position facing the intended direction of the spring.
Centre of Gravity
The body’s centre of gravity should be positioned over the base of support
Pre-Stretch
The student will bend at the knees and hips so that the quadriceps are stretched. Heels may be raised off the contact surface.
Springs – Intermediate Coordinated Limb Movement to Generate Force
The legs extending and the arms moving through a full range of motion (from back to front) will assist the student with generation of force. The pre-stretch is simultaneously, forcefully released in these body parts. The arms drive upward as the legs are straightened.
Range of Motion
The arms are used to assist the body into and through the spring. The greater the range of motion of the arms and the more acute the angles at the hips and knees, the greater will be the range of motion.
Generating Velocity
The centre of gravity is dropped prior to the spring.
The greater the range of motion the greater is the velocity/height or distance of the spring potential.
Controlling Directional Forces (Force Vectors)
The angle of release or projection will assist in determining the direction of the spring.
Springs – Advanced
Efficiently Changing from one Force Vector to Another
A participant often absorbs some of the horizontal force vector by going into a partial crouch (pre-stretching) before springing for height (vertical force vector).
Controlling Velocity
The extent of pre-stretch, arm action and explosiveness of release can control velocity.
Optimal Angles
The optimal angle of release when springing for distance (45° ) is different from when springing for height (90° ).
Influence of Body Parts to Change Momentum Within a Force Vector
The motion of limbs can assist in extending the force vector (for example, follow through when performing a sending skill or the "running in the air" action during the long jump).