Effective secondary teachers know they are teaching students as well as content. They also know that, in every class, there will be a diversity of students, each of whom will bring to the activity environment different perceptions, prior knowledge, attitudes and learning styles. It is the teacher's responsibility to make use of a variety of instructional approaches to ensure that all "types" of students and their various needs are being met.
The following information reinforces the importance of using a variety of instructional approaches:
Retention Rate
Of what we know we learn approximately
Of what we learn we retain approximately
(From Fundamental principles and practices of teaching: A practical theory-based approach to planning and instruction by H. Lang and A. McBeath. (In Progress). Fort Worth: HBJ-Holt.) Ref.11
The following pages discuss five main types of instructional approaches:
The instructional strategies and methods which most readily complement this curriculum guide are given. Each strategy is briefly defined. This is followed by a description of the respective methods and suggested ways of assessing or evaluating students.
Direct instruction strategies are highly teacher centred. The lecture method is a direct instruction example. Mini-lectures can be effectively used throughout Physical Education 20 and 30.
Mini-lecture
The mini-lecture is a one-way type of communication. It is an efficient way of providing a small amount of information in a short period of time.
Mini-lectures are effective when they are:
Example: presenting information on heart rate range before students calculate their own.
Appropriate Assessment and Evaluation Techniques:
The purpose of a mini-lecture is to impart knowledge. The most appropriate way of assessing understanding is a combination of test items such as essay, short answer, multiple choice, true and false.
Structured Overview
This strategy refers to organizing and arranging topics or concepts to make them meaningful to students.
Example: unit overview and how it fits into the rest of the year or semester.
Appropriate Assessment and Evaluation Techniques:
As this is usually used as an organizer, teachers are not likely to assess it.
Explicit Teaching
This strategy involves six teaching functions:
Example: progression of a racquets unit.
Appropriate Assessment and Evaluation Techniques:
As explicit teaching involves students interacting with content, the most appropriate way of assessing may be with a combination of test items, including performance tests.
Drill and Practice
This strategy refers to the structured, repetitive review of previously learned concepts to a predetermined level of mastery.
Example: golf "circuit" using gymnasium and field.
Appropriate Assessment and Evaluation Techniques:
This strategy tends to focus on skills. In this curriculum the focus is on both physical and non-physical skills. To assess level of skill, teachers will need to use performance assessments or performance tests.
An example of a drill and practice assessment may be in movement patterns. The performance cues for each movement pattern are located in the Motor Skills Development section of this document. These performance cues can be inserted as criteria on a template for anecdotal records, checklists or rating scales.
Teachers need to establish criteria indicating what students are to do. The criteria are inserted into the templates for anecdotal records, rating scales, and checklists.
Compare and Contrast
This strategy involves looking for similarities and differences. Students:
Example: hockey slapshot versus golf 7-iron shot.
Appropriate Assessment and Evaluation Techniques:
This strategy reaches the application level and higher on Bloom's Taxonomy. The four components of compare and contrast as listed above can be used as criteria in the templates for anecdotal records, checklists and rating scales.
Didactic Questions
These are questions that tend to be convergent (they tend to focus on one topic) and factual. They often begin with "what," "where," "when," "how." (Saskatchewan Education, Training and Employment (1991), Instructional Approaches) Ref. 12
Examples: How would you improve your forehand stroke? What is the top end of your heart rate range?
Appropriate Assessment and Evaluation Techniques:
The teacher is able to observe both content and process through this activity. As a written assignment or an oral presentation or interview (live or taped) may be the ongoing student activity used for assessment, the teacher will record student progress using a rating scale, checklist or anecdotal records.
Content criteria may include:
Process criteria may include:
Demonstrations
These refer to teacher activities and talks that show students "how." Demonstrations apply primarily to skills and processes and are useful for helping students acquire procedural knowledge.
Example: how to enter personal skinfold measurements into a computer.
Appropriate Assessment and Evaluation Techniques:
Demonstrations feature the teacher as performer; therefore the students are not involved and no assessment is necessary.
Indirect instruction strategies are student centred. Indirect instruction methods are very effective when:
Concept Mapping
This instructional method can promote creative, meaningful, long-term learning. In the Physical Education 20 and 30 curriculum, concept mapping can be used to have students see the relationships between new information and what they already know.
Concept mapping:
(From C.E.L. Staff Development Program,1988) Ref. 13
Example: showing the relationship between the movement pattern "sending" and the subsequent performance cues related to beginner, intermediate and advanced.
Appropriate Assessment and Evaluation Techniques:
As concept mapping is used as an engaging activity and synthesis activity or one that supplies diagnostic information, teachers may consider the type of information they wish to collect in assessing students' concept maps. Anecdotal records may be the most appropriate data recording method. Possible criteria to direct anecdotal comments may be:
Problem Solving
This strategy refers to a process of decision-making or a series of steps used by individuals or groups to arrive at answers to questions or the solution of a problem.
Example: planning a school fitness promotion video.
Appropriate Assessment and Evaluation Techniques:
Teachers may insert these steps into a checklist, rating scale or anecdotal record template in order to record student information. These steps become the criteria.
Reflective Discussion
This strategy involves students individually or as a group in thinking more deeply about a topic through discussion.
Example: choosing a workout partner.
Appropriate Assessment and Evaluation Techniques:
Effective communication skills and contributions are criteria to be evaluated here. A sample assessment tool, Anecdotal Records in Reflective Discussion is provided in the Templates for Assessment and Evaluation section of this guide.
Concept Attainment
Concept attainment is an inductive way to teach a concept in which examples and non-examples are provided in order to develop students' understanding of the particular concept.
Example: obese versus overweight.
Appropriate Assessment and Evaluation Techniques:
In assessing student learning, teachers may wish to focus on the following criteria recorded on an anecdotal record template:
Interactive instruction strategies employ groups of learners. Before the group members "set to work" it is important for them to be aware of what they are to accomplish, how much time they have, and what the recording or reporting procedures are.
Successful use of interactive instruction methods in Physical Education 20 and 30 requires students to be aware of particular group process skills. A few basics include respect for the opinions of others, attentive listening skills, recording and reporting skills.
Peer Practice
This strategy involves each student rehearsing skills or conceptual information with a peer.
Example: motor skills.
Appropriate Assessment and Evaluation Techniques:
Teachers may use an anecdotal recording instrument that highlights student participation and contributions.
Discussion
A problem or issue is chosen that either does not require a particular response or that requires students to discover an answer.
Discussion is based on material familiar to students and should conclude with consensus, a solution, clarification of insights gained or a summary. (Saskatchewan Education, Training and Employment (1991), Instructional Approaches, p. 23.) Ref. 12
Example: assessing individual fitness programs.
Appropriate Assessment and Evaluation Techniques:
It is the teacher's decision whether discussion is assessed. Should teachers wish to evaluate discussion, what is to be looked for must be determined and shared with students ahead of time.
Problem Solving
This strategy refers to a process of decision-making or a series of steps used by individuals or groups to arrive at answers to questions or the solution of a problem.
Example: setting evaluation criteria for an assignment.
Appropriate Assessment and Evaluation Techniques:
Teachers may insert these steps into a checklist, rating scale or anecdotal record template in order to record student information. These steps become the criteria.
Cooperative Learning Groups
These groups are heterogeneous with respect to student characteristics and have two to six members sharing the various roles. Group members are interdependent in achieving the group learning goal. The jigsaw, explained next in this section, is an example of a cooperative learning group activity. (Saskatchewan Education, Training and Employment (1991). Instructional Approaches) Ref. 12
Example: planning a fitness presentation.
Appropriate Assessment and Evaluation Techniques:
The self-evaluation instrument My Group Skills or Performance
(p. 88) is provided for your use.
Jigsaw
Aronson (1978) developed this method whereby students become "experts" on a topic and then meet with other "experts" to study the assigned topic.
To conduct a jigsaw: <
For more information see the Resource Package that is included with the Staff Development Program which accompanies the Instructional Approaches document.
Example: learning about power training principles.
Appropriate Assessment and Evaluation Techniques:
The rating scale Cooperative Group Skills can be inserted into each student's portfolio and used over time. It is located in the Templates for Assessment and Evaluation section of this document.
Brainstorming
This strategy is used to generate ideas and imaginative solutions. The teacher acts as facilitator and records learners' comments.
Brainstorming is most effective when:
Example: Physical Education 30 - discussing possible volunteering sites.
Appropriate Assessment and Evaluation Techniques:
Teachers may decide to assess brainstorming when it is used in the context of cooperative learning groups. Anecdotal records may be the preferred method of recording data. A template is provided in the next section.
Circle of Knowledge
This strategy involves each student in thinking and discussing with a peer before sharing ideas with a large group.
Example: Physical Education 30 - volunteering component.
Appropriate Assessment and Evaluation Techniques:
In this curriculum, the circle of knowledge method is used in the same manner as Reflective Discussion. To assess student learning, teachers may wish to use the Anecdotal Record Form for Reflective Discussion/Discussion/Circle of Knowledge as a data recording method. It is found in the section called Templates for Assessment and Evaluation.
Tutorial Group
A tutorial group is a group formed to receive remediation or enrichment as directed by a teacher or peer tutor.
Example: motor skills.
Appropriate Assessment and Evaluation Techniques:
This method reflects the organization of student groupings; therefore, teachers will need to choose assessment techniques that are appropriate to the instructional method used. For example, tutorial groups may be used with didactic questions. The teacher would then reference the appropriate assessment techniques for didactic questions.
Interviewing
Interviewing is the meeting of people face to face to confer about a topic or issue.
Example: Physical Education 30 - volunteering component.
Appropriate Assessment and Evaluation Techniques:
A Student Self-Assessment for Preparing and Conducting an Interview is found in the Templates for Assessment and Evaluation section.
Independent learning has implications for responsible decision-making. Individuals are expected to analyze problems, reflect, make decisions and take purposeful actions. To take responsibility for their lives in times of rapid social change, students need to acquire life-long learning capability. As most aspects of our daily lives are likely to undergo profound changes, independent learning will enable individuals to respond to the changing demands of work, family and society. (Saskatchewan Education, Training and Employment, Instructional Approaches: A Framework for Professional Practice, 1988, p.53) Ref. 12
Learning Contracts
Learning contracts can be used throughout Physical Education 20 and 30. Students and teacher work together during the designing, running and evaluation of personal contracts.
Example: specializing in one activity.
Appropriate Assessment and Evaluation Techniques:
You may wish to refer to Rating Scale for Investigating Movement Patterns found in the Templates for Assessment and Evaluation section.
Templates for Assessment and Evaluation section of this guide.
Research Projects
Students are involved in research projects individually, as partners, and as members of small groups.
Example: investigating various fitness centres.
Appropriate Assessment and Evaluation Techniques:
Consult the Templates for Assessment and Evaluation section to locate a sample checklist, A Framework for Marking a Project or a Written Assignment.
Essays
Essays are exercises that require students to respond comprehensively in written form to an
assigned topic. (Saskatchewan Education, Training and Employment (1991). Student evaluation: A teacher handbook, p. 105) Ref. 14
Example: in place of a formal exam.
Computer-Assisted Instruction
This strategy refers to any instructional program in which the computer performs, manages or supports some or all of the teacher or provider functions.
Example: personalized fitness programs.
Appropriate Assessment and Evaluation Techniques:
If teachers access such a resource, student learnings are to be assessed in ways that correspond to the initial purpose or intent. In other words, teachers ask themselves the questions: "Why did I have this student working with a particular software package?" "What learning objectives are the students to accomplish by working through this package?" Teachers will then assess students on those learning objectives.
Reports
Reports may be written, graphic or oral in nature and involve the students in expressing their learnings about a chosen topic.
Examples: an advanced player's breakdown of a golf swing.
Appropriate Assessment and Evaluation Techniques:
A written report can be assessed by using Report Assessment located in the Templates for Assessment and Evaluation section of this guide. A graphic report can certainly be assessed. The teacher and student need to determine the criteria on which the graphic will be assessed ahead of time. The criteria would then be inserted into a template for a checklist, rating scale or anecdotal records.
Homework
This refers to assignments students are given that are to be completed during their time away from the classroom.
Homework is both an assessment technique and an instructional method. (Saskatchewan Education, Training and Employment (1991), Student evaluation: A teacher handbook, p. 93) Ref. 14
Example: calculating metabolic rate with this information to be used during next day's class.
Appropriate Assessment and Evaluation Techniques:
Homework applies to both the cognitive and motor skill domains. If the purpose of the homework is motor skill improvement, a checklist or rating scale is appropriate. If the purpose is cognitive or attitudinal, instruments can be designed accordingly.
Assigned Questions
Assigned questions are those prepared by the teacher to be answered by individuals or small groups of students with the students discussing their responses among themselves or with the teacher. (Saskatchewan Education, Training and Employment (1991), Instructional Approaches Ref. 12
Example: questions related to purchasing a worthwhile piece of workout equipment.
Appropriate Assessment and Evaluation Techniques:
If the questions are designed at the knowledge level, a recall style test, using a variety of types of questions, can be used to assess student learnings. If the questions are designed to be at the application level or higher then complex criteria are established.
These strategies are student centred. The emphasis is on process, not product.
Experiential instruction strategies are very useful because:
There are five phases:
Games
Games are learning or training activities that include conflict, control and rules for winning and terminating the activities. They are structured or contrived activities.
Example: creating games which focus on specific movement patterns.
Appropriate Assessment and Evaluation Techniques:
Games may be assessed using Assessing Group Presentations or Games found in the Templates for Assessment and Evaluation section of this guide.
Focused Imaging
This strategy is the process of internally visualizing an object, event or situation. It enables students to relax and allow their imaginations to take them on journeys, to "experience" situations first hand and to respond with their senses to the mental images formed. (Saskatchewan Education, Training and Employment (1991), Instructional Approaches) Ref. 12
Example: motor skill development.
Appropriate Assessment and Evaluation Techniques:
Perhaps student self-assessment would be the focus because this instructional method is difficult for an observer to assess. The self-assessment might involve the teacher to the extent that the teacher instructs the students to concentrate on one or two sensations throughout the experience. These key sensations might be recorded using a checklist or anecdotal record completed by the student.
Instruction Plan
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