Motor Skill Development

Basic Movement Patterns and Performance Cues

"Movement patterns" is the term given to ten basic types of movement the body engages in when participating in physical activity, whether it be walking, climbing trees, skateboarding or pole vaulting. These movement patterns apply to all levels of motor skill ability regardless of whether the participant is a beginner, intermediate or advanced, recreational or competitive, female or male, younger or older.

Sending		Throwing Striking (with hands, with extension of hand or head) Kicking
Recieving		Catching Collecting
Accompanying		Dribbling (with feet, hands, stick handling) Carrying
Evading		Dodging Faking Screening
Locomotions		Repetitive displacements of the body (walk, run, climb, traverse); may involve equipment
Landings		On feet, hands, and while rotating
Statics		Balance (unstable positions) Supports (stable positions) Hangs (shoulder below point of suspension)
Swings		From various body parts From various apparatuses
Rotations		Rotation about one of the primary axes (long, broad, narrow)
Springs		Rapid displacement of the body (from arms or legs)

These movement patterns are broken down into "performance cues" at the beginner, intermediate and advanced levels. Performance cues are valuable for students and teachers. They provide information about specific things to look for when performing a skill in a certain movement pattern area. Turn to page 130 for an example. Look under the headings "Sending" and "Beginner." Note that when a beginner is executing a sending pattern -- and this could mean throwing a ball or frisbee, serving a volleyball or hitting a ball with a bat -- this beginner is primarily concerned with making sure that his or her body faces the direction of the target and that the feet are placed in such a way that the body feels balanced or stable.

Page 132 explains this in more detail.

On the other hand, the intermediate student is comfortable with the ofur performance cues stated under "Beginner" and is ofcusing on five other cues with a priority placed on weight transfer. The advanced "sender" has the performance cues from Beginner and Intermediate under control and is working on clearing the hips and other more sophisticated performance cues.

Notice something else -- the beginner's performance cues are all related to body and space. This means that the beginner is ofcusing on two areas:

• how the body looks and very generally what it does when executing a skill (for example, having the body face the direction it wants the object it is sending to go) -- "body"
  
• paying attention to the area in which the body will perform (for example, the service area for tennis) -- "space"

The intermediate's ofcus is still on "space" but more on "force." When the ofcus is on force, this means that the ofcus is on the application of power in order to move the body (starting and stopping) or applying power to a game object (badminton smash versus drop shot); however, it is useless for the intermediate student to engage in skill development at that level until the beginner performance cues have been internalized. When performance cues are internalized, it means the person no longer has to consciously think about and concentrate on them.

The same applies to the advanced student. This student is working at this level because the performance cues for beginner and intermediate

are no longer a concern. This student's ofcus is somewhat on force but more on relationships. Here the ofcus is on the adjustment made among body, space and force to change or further refine skill performance and strategies (for example, applying appropriate spin on a forehand tennis shot so that it "dies" immediately after bouncing).

This information can be summarized as ofllows:

If the student is working on performance cues related to Body       | and |___________ then the student is a beginner           | Space |  If the student is working on performance cues related to Space       | and |___________ then the student is intermediate           | force | If the student is working on performance cues related to force       | and |___________ then the student is advanced                      | Relationships |

Movement patterns and performance cues have major implications for teaching physical education:

• They provide a quick assessment tool for determining the starting point for each student -- excellent use of the adaptive dimension!
  
• They provide a template for selecting and creating activities geared specifically for classes that typically contain students who are working at various levels.
  
• They allow students the opportunity to take control of their own learning and progress. Students are able to determine where they are developmentally and why and are able to use this information to help themselves and others improve. This in turn frees the teacher to become more of a facilitator for student learning as opposed to the being the main ofcus in each class.
  
• They allow for more objective assessment and evaluation of student progress in the motor skill domain. Physical educators will be more confident marking in this area. This eliminates the fear of what is often perceived as the unfair practice of evaluating "athletic ability."
  
• They fit perfectly with the conceptual approach to teaching motor skills. The conceptual approach enables students to take what they know about one activity and transfer this knowledge to another activity. Ultimately, this means that students will be able to enjoy activities that were not specifically taught in class. It also means they will be able to participate successfully in activities that do not even exist at this point in time!

Lessons and units involving motor skill development are planned through the use of movement patterns and performance cues. Planning this way will increase the chances of students becoming physically educated as opposed to becoming physically trained. Appendix B contains a graph which may be photocopied and used to chart the predominant movement patterns for any activity. This will help teachers determine whether all movement patterns are being developed adequately over the course of the year or semester. Samples depicting the movement patterns for tennis and educational gymnastics are provided for illustration.

Performance Cues That Appear Most Frequently

Explanation of Performance Cues

Sending

Sending: Beginner

Direction of Body Alignment

• The body faces in the direction of the target.
  
• The base of support is wide enough to provide stability. "Base of support" means the body parts in contact with the floor; in this case, the feet.
  
• Things to know about stability and mobility:

  • When a person is standing, the concentration of body weight is in the upper body. That is, the upper body is heavier than the lower body. This decreases stability because the body is "top heavy."
    
  • In order to increase stability, the weight would have to be more evenly distributed over the body. This is done by moving the centre of gravity closer to the base of support, namely the feet.
    
  • Centre of gravity is an imaginary point at which the body weight is equally distributed or balanced. Generally speaking, with males this point is found around the navel. With, females, it is about 5 cm lower.
    
  • Mobility is the ability to initiate movement quickly.
    
  • Stability is the body firmly fixed, not easily moved.
    
  • Narrow base of support - less stability, more mobility.
    
  • Wider base of support - more stability, less mobility.

Limbs (working) in opposition

• This means that a right-handed person will have the left foot forward; a left-handed person will have the right foot forward.
  
• This allows for more stability during the contact. (The students often say they "feel more comfortable" or that this "feels better" than same arm/same foot.) Try hitting a tennis ball or a badminton shuttle with a "same side" contact or standing with your feet beside each other and you'll see what they mean!

Visual contact

• "Ya cain't hit what ya ain't lookin' at!" In other words, beginner students must actually see the object as it is being struck or thrown.
  
• Beginners tend to "peek." They look to see where the object has gone before they have contacted it.
  
• Students who have progressed to the intermediate or advanced stages will sometimes get "sloppy" with this performance cue. This requires a return to the basics to find out what has broken down. It may very well be right here.

Point of release or contact

• Beginners need to spend time discovering where the best place is to contact the object.
  
• The direction an object takes is a line tangent to that in which the racquet face is moving at impact.
  
• This direction is controlled to a large degree by the wrist ... another reason correct grip is so very, very important.

Sending: Intermediate

Note that these performance cues are based on a progression from beginner cues. It is pointless for a student to move from beginner to intermediate activities when the latter depends so closely on the former! Students need to be provided with activities that allow them to perform at levels appropriate to their abilities. Remember, the class is planned around the students and not the other way around.

Weight Transfer

• The base of support is enlarged by moving the feet into a forward/backward or "staggered" position. An enlarged base of support allows for the transfer of weight in the direction of the intended target.
  
• When contact is made with the object, the large muscle groups of the body must be moving in the direction of the target. In order to accomplish this, the weight must move from back to front. This applies to both the body and, for example, the racquet or bat. Effectiveness is lost when the player wants the shot to go to point A but, on contact, the shoulders are pointing at B, the racquet or bat face at C.

Pre-stretch (wind-up)

• If any "oomph" is to be put into the contact, the muscles must be relaxed until contact is made. It is the contracting or tightening of the muscles that gives a release or contact its force. In the advanced stages of motor skill development, the pre-stretch or wind-up is critical in that it allows the student a choice of what kind of skill to use (for example, hard smash/soft drop shot, spike/tip).
  
• It is critical that balance be maintained. If balance is lost, then the attempt at increasing range of motion and speed of response becomes counterproductive.
  
• The length of the follow through often contributes to greater accuracy due to longer time being spent in contact with the object.

Range of motion

• The length of the backswing increases and the whole arc or line that the arm or lever follows enlarges. This allows for more choices when deciding on a skill.
  
• Maximum range of motion allows for more time between the start of the swing and the contact/release. Thus, the force at contact/release is increased. A player must learn to use range of motion effectively depending on the desired outcome.
  
• Use of wrist snap also determines force and direction of flight. for example, racquet sports differ in the amount of wrist snap used. More wrist snap will be used during a badminton game than during a tennis game. If wrist snap is to be used effectively, the correct grip must be used at all times!
  
• Range of motion increases when the wrist is cocked on the backswing.
  
• followthrough allows for smooth flow of the skill and allows for appropriate force to be applied to the object. for example, a complete ofllowthrough is used on a tennis serve when the desired outcome is an unreturnable serve. Less ofllowthrough is used when executing a drop shot in badminton.
  
• The longer the lever (racquet, arm, leg) at the time of contact or release, the faster the action.
  
• If a racquet is used as an extension of the arm, the player may hit an object faster and farther than when the arm is bent. This means that the distance the racquet head is from the body has an impact on the shot.
  
• A squash racquet allows for more leverage because of its length; however, for the inexperienced player, it can become unwieldy. Sometimes the advantage of leverage must be forfeited in favour of more control.

Length of Pre-Stretch and ofllowthrough

• An increase in the range of motion causes an increase in velocity.

Sending: Advanced

Again, these performance cues depend on the proper execution of the ones in Beginner and Intermediate.

Clearing Hips

• Moving the hips so that the navel faces the direction the object is to go.

Motion/movement adjustment because of velocity

• As muscles are used faster, more force is generated.
  
• A player comes to realize that large muscle groups (such as shoulders, buttocks) play a major role in applying force. Just because the arm or leg is doing much of the movement does not mean that those muscles are the only or even the primary ones used during a shot. This is a common error.
  
• How large muscle groups are being used is also a logical place to look when determining the cause(s) of "mechanical breakdowns" by more experienced players. At times, these students find themselves losing their "punch." They have come to rely on weaker muscles to do a "big job." This is usually rectified by a return to the basic performance cues and a review of why each one is important.

Action of Non-throwing/Striking Arm

• This arm acts by "pulling" or exerting force in a direction opposite to the throwing/striking arm. This helps with shoulder rotation and adds more force on release/contact. An example would be the volleyball spike.

  

Receiving

Receiving: Beginner

Visual Tracking

• The eyes must be kept on the approaching object. No peeking. As the eyes watch the object, the body will make adjustments (moving laterally, forward and back). This usually means moving the feet to get into position!

Presentation of target

• The body faces the direction from which the object is coming.

Absorption

• The body moves into position before the object arrives, in preparation for contact.
  
• Moving the feet to the approaching object instead of simply reaching for it allows for better contact and a faster recovery. Moving the feet keeps the centre of gravity inside the base of support, thereby maintaining stability. More advanced players may develop a "lunge" technique which, unlike a reach, allows the centre of gravity to stay inside the base of support.

Control

• The face of the bat, racquet or stick must not deviate from facing the direction the object is to go once received.
  
• Proper grip is critical!

Receiving: Intermediate

Range of Absorption

• Refers to the range of motion along the force path before changing the direction of the force. for example, when playing at the net in tennis, if the racquet is held firmly, the ball will go much further when it leaves the racquet than if the shot is "cushioned" a bit. When receiving a ground ball at shortstop in baseball, the ball is "cushioned" in the glove.

Hand-eye coordination

• The student has a better idea of where the object is in relation to the body and racquet, stick or foot. The racquet/stick/foot (instead of the body) ends up being positioned in the space where contact with the object is to occur. Notice how beginners often overrun the object, swing with the racquet/stick/foot too close to the body or end up having to really reach to make contact with the object.

Flight pathway interception point

• Intermediate students are able to judge at what point during the flight of the object contact should be made. A high clear in badminton is contacted while the shuttle is towards the top of the arc; a forehand in tennis is contacted after the ball has bounced and close to the top of its flight path.
  
• for maximum force, the object must be contacted at the point of highest/farthest reach.
  
• The player must consider the racquet to be an extension of the arm and make adjustments accordingly. If maximum force is achieved with full extension of the arm, what would the player do to decrease the amount of force? Is there more than one thing a player could do?

Direction of body alignment (base of support)

• With experience and increasing confidence, students are able to gather information from an opponent's body language as well as assessing which shots are the opponent's "favourites." This allows them to use centre of gravity principles more effectively.
  
• As the centre of gravity moves closer to the edge of the base of support (that is, as the body leans to either side or leans forward or backward), stability is decreased. This factor becomes increasingly important when students are moving into the advanced stages of motor skill development. They begin to anticipate shots and angles and "cheat" to certain sides of their bodies in order to move quickly in certain directions. They have made a decision to give up some stability in order to become more mobile.

Receiving: Advanced

Setting up for Next Move

• Is the player setting up for rapid execution of his or her next shot? Deception? This decision is made based on "body language" telegraphed from the opposing player plus knowledge of the opposition's strengths and weaknesses. At this level, the player must be able to "read the situation."

Velocity of motion

• With increased velocity, the more exact the reception must be. for example, to receive and return a potential kill shot in racquetball, all performance cues previously discussed will come into play, plus accurate anticipation and reaction on the part of the receiver.

Centre of gravity

• At this level, the player may have to begin absorption of the shot in an off-balance manner.

  

Accompanying

Accompanying: Beginner

Control

• The student is able to keep the object under control as she or he moves.
  
• The student understands, for instance, how hard to contact the soccer ball with the side of the foot without letting it "get away." She or he understands that, when dribbling a basketball and moving quickly down the floor, the player must push the ball a bit ahead each time to prevent bumping into or over-running the ball.

Visual Contact

• "Ya cain't control what ya ain't lookin' at!" In other words, beginning students must actually see the hand contact the ball and/or the foot contact the soccer ball.
  
• beginners tend to "peek". This means they tend to direct their attention towards other stimuli (the player trying to take the ball away, the goal posts at the end of the field) instead of watching, at least peripherally, the object being manipulated. Use of peripheral vision is probably an indicator that the student has moved to the "upper" beginner level for this pattern and possibly even to the intermediate level.
  
• You may find, too, that students who have progressed to the intermediate or advanced stages will sometimes get "sloppy" with this performance cue. This requires a return to the basics to find out what has broken down. It may very well be right here.

Balance

• The student retains a "balanced" stance so that it is possible to stop quickly, start or change direction while maintaining control of the game object. She or he should be able to stick handle to the left or right and maintain control of the object.

Absorption

• Beginning students will need time to experiment and practise with equipment to see how much absorption is required for certain skill-related outcomes. for example, beginning basketball players tend to slap at the ball instead of allowing the ball to move smoothly upwards from the floor into the softer, slightly cupped hand. football players need practise to discover that when carrying a football down the field, they must relax when being tackled -- absorbing the force of the hit -- just like the hand absorbed the basketball.

Accompanying: Intermediate

Visual Field

• At the intermediate stage, a student should be able to track the object using peripheral vision while maintaining a broad field of vision (panoramic view of the playing field). It should not be necessary for an intermediate student to have eye contact with the object at all times in order to control or manipulate it properly.

Protection of Game Object

• The game object should be kept close to the body whether it is being carried, kicked or dribbled. The farther the game object is allowed to get away from the body, the greater the chance of the student losing control or possession.
  
• The student also practises keeping his or her body in between the game object and the closest opposing player.

Velocity Coordination of Body and Game Object

• The body and the game object must work together as a unit. They must move along the playing surface at a rate that keeps the skill being executed under control. for example, the basketball player who is dribbling the ball down the court must keep it not only out in front but dribble it at a rate quickly enough so she or he does not overrun the ball or get too far behind it.
  
• The player must now be able to change speeds as well as direction while maintaining control of the game object.

Accompanying: Advanced

Adjustment to External Variables

• An advanced student will be able to use cues provided from other players or the specific situation itself to make judgments and then take action. That is, he or she will be able to plan the next move on a proactive rather than reactive basis.

Pattern Variation

• The player adjusts the accompanying pattern according to various factors and game situations. These factors might include game conditions (for example, late in the period in ice hockey when there is a greater snow build up on the ice) or teammate or opponent actions.
  
• The soccer player can vary the distance of the kick as he or she dribbles it down the field. The basketball player may switch from one side of an opponent to the other with a spin dribble and another time use a behind the back dribble.

Misdirection (faking)

• The advanced player is able to assess external cues and use his or her centre of gravity, visual tracking and velocity to fake movement in one direction and go in another.

  

Evading

Evading: Beginner

Balance Maintained by Upper Body

• The participant will use arm extension and trunk angle to assist in controlling the body during an evasive movement.

Visual Contact

• Beginners will often keep their eyes focused on the direction they intend to go. As their skills develop, they learn to ofcus on the person they are attempting to evade and use peripheral vision when planning the evasive tactic.

Coordination

• Upper body tilt will "balance out" (compensate) for lower body direction and relative position of the body's centre of gravity.
  
• Upper limbs will often be operating in opposition to lower limbs. If the left leg is forward, the right arm will often be forward. The upper body generally "reacts" to the lower body.

Distribution of Body Weight

• Beginners tend to "telegraph" the evasive manoeuvre by moving the centre of gravity to the side they intend to go. They soon learn to keep their weight evenly distributed over their feet until the evasive move begins. This equal weight distribution also allows for more effective faking to one side before moving to the other.

Evading: Intermediate

Change of Direction (initiated by foot plant)

• A square corner is sharper and faster than a round one. When planning to change direction of movement, the change in direction is initiated by a definite foot plant. The foot plant creates a pivot point around which the body can move. The foot plant is executed by the foot on the non-evading side.

Push off

• The foot plant assists the body in initiating momentum and direction by allowing a solid point from which to push. The push off helps the student maintain speed while changing direction.

Anticipation

• Intermediate students are performing at a level where they can begin to "read" the situation, picking up cues about the situation. These cues allow them to make informed decisions about what type of evasive manoeuvre to use and when. They are also better able to adjust the speed or force of the evasive manoeuvre.

Evading: Advanced

Misdirections

• The advanced student is able to assess external cues such as the opposition's body language and use his or her centre of gravity, visual tracking and velocity to fake movement in one direction and then go in another.
  
• The advanced student is able to react instantaneously to external cues by processing a lot of information at one time. This information may come in the form of body language from the opposition and past experiences in similar situations. The student uses it to make appropriate decisions. This is commonly called "playing smart."
  
• Quick reactions allow the participant to maintain his or her overall execution speed.

Peripheral Vision

• The student can use peripheral vision to assess game situations and make decisions. Use of peripheral vision enables the student to appear to give total visual attention to one thing when planning to do something else. for example, the offensive ringette player may ofcus on an imaginary or real receiver to the left thus giving the defensive player the cue that the ring or the player is preparing to move that way. Anticipating this, the defensive player adjusts his or her position accordingly. This frees up the right side of the ice which, in reality, is the direction the offensive player intended to go in the first place.

Kinesthetic Awareness

• The advanced student has the ability to "feel" where his or her body parts are in relation to the rest without actually looking at them. As the student's skills develop, this awareness extends to include a "feel" for the object (stick, ball, puck) in relation to the body as well as an awareness of other players and their relation to his or her personal space.

Locomotions

Locomotions: Beginner

foot strike patterns

• moving forward: heel/ball
  
• moving backward: ball
  
• moving sideways: ball/heel/ball

Limbs in opposition

• the dominant foot is the power foot (push off).

Direction of body alignment

• The number of cross-over steps used.

Centre of gravity

• The centre of gravity is kept over the base of support.

Locomotions: Intermediate

Propulsion

• foot strike occurs in the direction of intended movement and occurs with force and "strong intention."

Change of direction

• Plant the foot that is away from the intended direction of movement. This is often called "planting the outside foot."
  
• Pivoting.

Methods of locomotion

• Get all the limbs moving in the direction the body needs to go.

Generating velocity

• Begin the movement with short, quick steps.

Locomotions: Advanced

All body parts

• Must act as a unit (gracefully).

Controlling velocity

• Stopping quickly.

Combination of movement

• Changing direction quickly.

  

Landings

Landings: Beginner

Base of Support

• The wider the base of support, the more stability. Beginners often perform landings with both feet or hands contacting the supporting surface (ground, floor, beam) at the same time. The feet are usually spaced about shoulder width apart.

Centre of Gravity

• Upon contact with the supporting surface, the student bends at the waist (drops his or her centre of gravity). Remember, the closer the centre of gravity is to the base of support (the closer the mid-section is to the feet or hands) the greater the stability.
  
• At the beginner level the centre of gravity is usually over the base of support. If for some reason this is not the case, the arms or upper body tilt often compensate to maintain balance.

Landings: Intermediate

Absorption of Body force/force Vectors

• Typically, the greater the force vector to be absorbed, the greater the range of motion to absorb that force. for example, a person will often lower the centre of gravity more by bending at the knees and hips when landing from a height of 2 metres than when landing from a 1/3 metre height.

Body Alignment (base of support)

• The student is able to perform successfully with a narrower base of support. This is most often achieved by "extending" the base of support in the direction of the horizontal force vector (a one-foot stop (landing) or changing direction with a foot plant when evading).

Pre-stretch (preparation for spring)

• After the landing has occurred, there is a relaxing of large and small muscle groups. This relaxation phase is necessary as the student often is immediately preparing for another move such as a spring. In order for the student to generate any kind of "oomph," the muscles must be relaxed so that they can then contract and generate force.

Landings: Advanced

Change of Direction

• The advanced participant will often land so that he or she is ready to change direction. This change of direction frequently involves vertical and horizontal force vectors (approach to volleyball spike, second basemen's pivot on a double play throw to first base).

Influence of Limbs

• At the advanced level, the student learns to use his or her limbs for stability on the landing. for example, holding the arms out in front of the body while absorbing the force of the landing increases the likelihood that the individual will maintain balance. This is often demonstrated in vaulting activities, ski jumping, long and triple jumping.

Coordination

• This refers to coordinating the various body parts so that the body stays under control without a significant loss in speed or force. This is especially important when preparing to change the direction of a force vector (from horizontal to vertical or vertical to horizontal).

  

Statics

Statics: Beginner

Centre of Gravity in Relation to Base of Support

• Beginners need to ofcus on keeping the centre of gravity well inside the base of support for maximum stability.
  
• The larger the base of support, the easier it is to maintain balance.
  
• An example would be a headstand where a triangle formed by the head and hands forms the base of support and the hips are kept in an area above that triangle.

Coordination

• The trunk and all limbs must be coordinated and work in opposition in order to maintain a static or dynamic balance.

Spatial Awareness

• The beginner finds it necessary to ofcus on where his or her trunk and limbs are in relation to a confined space. The beginner finds it easier to perform statics that keep all parts of the body close to each other.

Directional forces (force vectors)

• At the beginner level the force vectors are usually unidirectional (if they are horizontal they all go in the same horizontal direction).

Statics: Intermediate

Kinesthetic Awareness (especially in inversion)

• The intermediate student focuses on what the trunk and limbs are doing in relation to each other and space in general.
  
• Kinesthetic awareness is particularly important when performing in the inverted or "upside down" position. It is not uncommon for students to experience a sense of confusion when working in the inverted position due to new visual and sensory cues.
  
• The limbs are often operating in opposition to each other (left foot and right arm forward).

Mental Preparation

• Statics at the intermediate level require students to have a well defined picture in their minds of the activity to be performed. Visualization helps the students make a mental commitment to the skill and increases the chances of success.

Concentration

• Because the intermediate student is working with an increasing number of variables, it is critical that she or he ofcus totally on what is to be performed. Outside distractions are generally counterproductive.

Statics: Advanced

Altering Base of Support

• An advanced student is able to maintain his or her centre of gravity over a smaller base of support and still maintain balance.
  
• An example would be a one-handed handstand. The base of support (the size of the supporting hand) is very small.
  
• Hanging rearways (buttocks facing up) on the rings with the body parallel to the floor puts the centre of gravity below the base of support (the hands clasping the rings). Regardless, the premise remains the same: the centre of gravity must remain over the base of support to maintain balance.

Visual Imagery

• A mental picture of the performance is created by the student. She or he visualizes the proper execution of the activity, often reviewing it a number of times.
  
• This prepares the muscles to perform an activity which the mind has already rehearsed.

Isometric Contraction

• Statics are both motionless and sustained. The student learns to use strong, tight muscles to hold the trunk and limbs in an immobile position.

Swings

Swings: Beginner

Directional forces (force vectors)

• "Fixed centre" refers to the point(s) where the body is in contact with the bar.
  
• The student is aware of the centrifugal force that pulls his or her body away from the "fixed" centre of the swing and is able to manage that force.

Centre of Gravity

• The centre of gravity is kept as far from the base as possible to maximize the effect of gravitational pull.
  
• At the height of a 360^o swing the centre of gravity is kept at the maximum height of the bar.

Body Control

• The beginner is able to control force vectors by changing the centre of gravity during the swing.

Spatial Awareness

• The beginner is able to discern where the swing will "take" him or her. Is the space large enough for the swing? Will the swing be suitable for the desired effect?

Swings: Intermediate

Pathways

• In order to maintain a pathway, velocity must be maintained.

Generating Velocity

• Swing velocity increases as the centre of gravity moves closer to the "fixed centre" of swing.
  
• Swing velocity can be generated by pivoting the body at major joints (hips and knees).

  

Swings: Advanced

Controlling Velocity

• The advanced student is able to increase or decrease velocity by extending or shortening the body (piking or bending at the knees and hips).

Adjusting/Controlling Directional forces (force vectors)

• Changing grip at the same time the swing velocity dissipates allows for a change/reversal in swing direction.

Rotations

Rotations: Beginner

Centre of Gravity

• The centre of gravity must rotate around the axis of rotation.

Limbs in Motion

• Keeping limbs close to the body helps to stabilize the rotation.

Maintaining Equilibrium

• All body parts must remain in rotational line in order to maintain the dynamic balance or "equilibrium" of the rotation.

Rotations: Intermediate

Directional forces (force vectors)

• The closer the centre of gravity is to the rotational axis the greater will be the rotational velocity.

Approach Velocity

• The effect of approach velocity can be increased by "tightening" the rotation (making the body smaller). This effect can be lessened by lengthening the rotation (straightening the body).

Rotations: Advanced

Summation of forces

• Centrifugal force increases as rotational velocity increases. As these two forces increase, control of the body during rotation is more demanding.

Various Axes

• In order to rotate successfully around two axes simultaneously (for example, a twisting flip) pathways and velocity are critical considerations.

  

Springs

Springs: Beginner

Body Alignment

• The body should be in a ready position facing the intended direction of the spring.

Centre of Gravity

• The body's centre of gravity should be positioned over the base of support.

Pre-Stretch

• The student will bend at the knees and hips so that the quadriceps are stretched. Heels may be raised off the contact surface.

Release

• The legs are forcefully straightened to propel the body upward.

Springs: Intermediate

Coordinated Limb Movement to Generate force

• The legs extending and the arms moving through a full range of motion (from back to front) will assist the student with generation of force. The pre-stretch is simultaneously, forcefully released in these body parts. The arms drive upward as the legs are straightened.

Range of Motion

• The arms are used to assist the body into and through the spring. The greater the range of motion of the arms and the more acute the angles at the hips and knees, the greater will be the range of motion.

Generating Velocity

• The centre of gravity is dropped prior to the spring.

• The greater the range of motion the greater is the velocity/height or distance of the spring potential.

Controlling Directional forces (force vectors)

• The angle of release or projection will assist in determining the direction of the spring.

Springs: Advanced

Efficiently Changing from one force Vector to Another

• A participant often absorbs some of the horizontal force vector by going into a partial crouch (pre-stretching) before springing for height (vertical force vector). Examples would be spiking in volleyball, approach and take off in high jump.

Controlling Velocity

• Velocity can be controlled by the extent of pre-stretch, arm action and explosiveness of release.

Optimal Angles

• The optimal angle of release when springing for distance (45^o) is different than when springing for height (90^o).

Influence of Body Parts to Change Momentum Within a force Vector

• The motion of limbs can assist in extending the force vector (for example, ofllowthrough when performing a sending skill or the "running in the air" action during the long jump).

A Conceptual Approach to Teaching Racquet Skills

Considerations for Effective Teaching

Anyone who has ever participated in a number of different sports, whether competitively or on a recreational level, eventually discovers that there is considerable "overlap" from one activity to another. That is, there are certain principles of movement, certain rules and etiquette and so on, that carry over from activity to activity.

Overlap enables a person to participate in a "new" activity (such as racquetball) by transferring what is known about a familiar activity (such as badminton). Taking that one step further, this overlap enables people to more easily use what they know about one activity (for example, golf) and apply it to one that does not, at first glance, seem at all similar (for example, ringette). It is not necessary for a person to have instruction in every single sport before being able to experience success in at least a few of them. It is this conceptual framework that must be focused upon when designing lessons related to learning racquet skills.

By the conclusion of a racquets unit, students should be able to enjoy participating in various activities requiring the use of a racquet (for example, badminton, tennis, squash, racquetball, pickleball). This is accomplished without having to receive instruction in each sport. Students should be able to transfer much of what has been learned -- "the basics" -- from one specific sport to others. This is referred to as "transfer of learning."

If transfer of learning is to take place, it is critical that we incorporate into our lessons opportunities for students to receive basic instruction. More than that, however, our students need the chance to discover what works for them and why. Transfer of learning results when an individual understands what is happening and, just as importantly, why. In this way, a movement pattern or performance cue can be taken from the specific setting in which it was learned and transferred to another setting.

When we isolate one activity from another without planning for the connections to be made from one to the next, we deprive our students of the basis to transfer previous learning to the next new activity. In a "typical" badminton unit, for example, we often begin with the stance, grip and footwork. From there, we move to various strokes, including technique and use these during a game situation. Somewhere along the line, rules and etiquette are added. At the end of the badminton unit the students put away their racquets and shuttles, often forgetting everything they know as soon as "The Exam" is written ... and, lo and behold, when the tennis unit begins some time later, what does the unit consist of? That's right: the stance, the grip ... you get the picture. Often, many students get a sense of, "Haven't I been here before?" but are not quite sure why the tennis unit "feels" a lot like the badminton one. Transfer of learning is trying to happen; it simply hasn't had the chance.

Yes, stance, grip and so on are the skills students must be familiar with in order to play a game that is both enjoyable to themselves and to those with whom they play; however, we can do so much more than simply prepare students to play one game: we can provide them with the movement patterns and performance cues necessary to participate in a number of activities, thus more effectively broadening their knowledge base in the area of lifetime activity.

Let us look at this more specifically. The "basics" of the ready position for racquetball are quite similar to those for squash, badminton and other racquet sports. The grip for badminton is very similar to that used in pickleball. There are many similarities. So, what does all this mean when it comes to planning lessons? It means when the students are learning about getting ready to receive or return a moving object, we plan for them to experience this in and through a variety of sports areas.

The class whose equipment includes badminton racquets and racquetball racquets and pickleball racquets uses all of them during the racquets unit, sometimes during the same class period. The students experience the fact that the ready position is the ready position is the ready position. It does not have to be "retaught" over and over. A racquetball racquet is simply traded for a badminton racquet when working on grip and so on. (This approach obviously applies to a multitude of skill-related situations.)

On the other hand, the class with less equipment makes arrangements, well ahead of time, to use another school's or arranges for students to view films on the unaccessible activities, discussing and analyzing what they see ... whatever it takes. This is called "dryland training."

Another important consideration is the fact that a conceptual approach to teaching allows students to progress at their own rates. Gone is the need for the less talented or less experienced student to "keep up" with the more gifted. Conversely, the student who has been a provincial badminton champion can participate in a "basics" review with the rest of the class, become familiar with the vocabulary and skills needed for peer coaching, and then move on to bigger challenges. She or he even has the option (perhaps "encouraged" by the teacher) of working on new skills, using equipment from another activity area. The badminton champion may want to work on basic fundamentals using racquetball equipment. This makes the student a beginner all over again and the challenges are almost endless.

A strength of this type of approach is that students are able to build on what they already know plus incorporate new skills they have had a role in discovering, adapting and practising. This results in students who are motivated by previous successes to pursue further challenges. These individuals truly become lifelong learners, capable of using physical activity to achieve and maintain healthy, active lifestyles.

In this racquets package you have been provided with the movement patterns and performance cues basic to racquet sports in general. You have also been provided with access to sample drills and activities. Some very important resources containing information that will help you "flesh out" your lesson outlines are found in the Bibliography.

Familiarize yourself with available material first. This will give you a far better idea of where you are headed. Once your unit has been developed and classes have begun, you will begin to see the results of your efforts: students who are beginning to internalize and use what they know, even when confronted with challenges that, at first glance, seem quite foreign to them.

Incorporating the Adaptive Dimension into the Racquets Package

The information under Learners with Special Needs in the Components and Initiatives of Core Curriculum section gives examples of things a teacher can do to assist in integrating physically and mentally disabled students into the regular class.

By using the resources found in your Bibliography, available resource personnel, plus some common sense and creativity, you will be able to deal with the wide range of abilities so commonly encountered within a classroom.

Planning A Racquets Unit

Below is a sequenced planning outline for a racquets unit. It will provide a template from which to develop lessons and future units.

1. Share with the students the purposes of this racquets unit. for example:

• introduction to new lifelong physical activities
  
• transfer of learning (via the use of performance cues) from one racquet sport to the others
  
• transferring movement patterns and performance cues from racquet sports to other activities
  
• observable and measurable improvement in motor skills performance
  
• learning of skills necessary in helping others improve their performances (peer coaching)

In order to peer coach, students will need a working vocabulary from which to begin. (Avoid being misled into thinking that the naturally motor gifted or more experienced players are automatically able to peer coach. Being able to execute a skill and being able to teach someone else are two entirely different things! As a matter of fact, teachers may well find that their best "coaches" will come from the students who really had to struggle with their skills development.)

Students will probably have to spend the first few classes together as a group while the teacher continuously reviews and reinforces what is meant by "peer coaching," how students will be seeing improvement in their own skill levels, their responsibilities to their coaching partners and necessary vocabulary.

Also, as students begin to understand the rationale for everyone beginning from the points they are currently at, the teacher will be able to spend time simply having them hit balls up against the wall, rally with shuttles and so on ... whatever it takes to see each person make a large number of contacts.

While developing skills using racquets, students will have several responsibilities, a major one being the ability to help others improve their skill levels. While facilitating their skill development, the teacher will be able to inform them ahead of time of the criteria upon which communication and social skills will be assessed and evaluated.

2.Assess students' starting points.

The purpose here is to determine students' starting points: pre-control, transition, control, utilization, proficiency. Surprisingly enough, this does not take long. The pre-control students will be obvious almost immediately, as will the utilization and proficiency individuals. This will give teachers time to concentrate on the transition and control students. Classes will not necessarily consist of the same number of students in each group. Numbers will be dependent on students' past experiences and familiarity with the activity.

In order to classify each student, try using the following definitions:

Pre-control (Beginner)

• virtually no control
  
• haphazard
  
• accidental successes
  
• no two attempts look alike

Transition (Fluctuates between pre-control and control)

• fluctuation between pre-control and control but with an observable tendency to execute more actions in the control mode

Control (Novice)

• more frequent successes
  
• attempts begin to look alike
  
• still requires intense concentration

Utilization (Intermediate)

• skill ready to use in combination with other skills
  
• consistent performance

Proficiency (Advanced)

• high level of ability
  
• fluid
  
• uses skills in a variety of situations
  
• movements seem effortless

When classifications have been completed, take the time to make sure that students understand the advantages of starting and working at their own rates and how this necessitates the teacher taking the responsibility for finding their starting points. (Once students become comfortable with the terms and their meanings, they can help a lot when it comes to their own classifications for future activities.)

3. Plan activities to accommodate the students' various starting points.

Once students understand the vocabulary they will be using during peer coaching, the purposes of peer coaching and the teacher's role in the whole scheme of things, it is time for the students to look at how their own bodies are doing in relation to the performance cues that apply to their own starting points. Allow them time -- time to develop some sort of kinesthetic awareness, which is the body's awareness of what various parts of the body (such as arms, hands, trunk) are doing at any given time and what they are doing in relation to each other.

Allow students time to work with their peer coaches, analyzing their motor skill strengths and weaknesses according to appropriate vocabulary. There is some advantage to pairing students up according to identical starting points, as both will be able to engage in the same activity; however, depending on availability of space, length of class, and equipment, there is also something to be said about the pairs being made up of individuals with two different starting points: for instance, teachers will be able to tell if the proficiency player really knows what he or she is doing, and why, by pairing that student with a transition player. Listen to and watch the communication between the two ... there's nothing like trying to teach something to a "beginner" to find out if a person really knows what he or she is talking about!

4. Assessment and Evaluation.

Teachers should remember that they are facilitating this class! If teachers resist the temptation to constantly run in and "fix" things for students, whether it be incorrect weight transfer or a communication problem during a peer coaching situation, then they can spend time using checklists, rating scales and anecdotal records to assess students' progress. Use of a video camera as a feedback instrument can be a great asset. Students can tape their movements and then discuss what they see according to performance cues.

Video tapes can also be used for more formal evaluation. for instance, students may be instructed to take X number of swings, serves, whatever, and then select the three best and explain, in writing, why these three were chosen. This gives teachers more time to look at each student's skills outside class time. Take things one step further. Quality of evaluation could be further improved if the students could tape themselves at the start of the unit and at the end. Simple observation and correct use of a performance checklist would effectively indicate improvement.

The following information includes activities that could be used in moving students from one starting point to a more sophisticated level of performance. In addition, suggested instruments on the assessment of communication skills, cooperation and more are provided in the Templates for Assessment and Evaluation section of this guide.

When working with motor skills related largely to sending, receiving and locomotions -- racquet sports being a prime example -- we must remember to deal with two very important skills that occur before contact with the object every occurs. These are grip and preparing to move. Many students would have much less trouble making quality contacts if they only knew how to get there to make the contact! Both of these skills are related to body and space.

Keeping this in mind, every student in the class will be included somewhere in the developmental scheme of things. Teachers will likely find that students in any class will often fall into three general ability categories: those who are "out of control" (pre-control or beginner); those at the other end of the range who are already very adept at certain motor skills and can benefit from more refinement (proficiency or advanced); and finally, those in the middle who have had some previous experience in that motor skill area or simply have a "feel" for what should be happening with their bodies as they perform skills (control or intermediate).

One of teachers' major responsibilities is to provide these students with a plan of action through activity that will allow for observable, measurable improvement and feelings of success; however, knowing that the "typical" class is usually made up of three classifications of students, this should put to rest the frightening perception of a class where 30 students are doing 30 different activities, all at the same time!

When selecting activities to match the abilities of students, be very conscious of the performance cues being worked on by the beginner, intermediate and advanced student. These performance cues are the keys to selecting appropriate activities for your students. Refer to the Motor Skill Development section for additional information.

Grip

Success with racquet sports begins right here!

Self-discipline on the part of the student and perseverance on the teacher's part, plus practise, practise, practise with the proper grip will certainly improve performance and increase the amount of fun and degree of personal satisfaction.

When working on grip, beginners or those who have developed poor habits may find the proper techniques uncomfortable for the first while. Insist that the students "stick with it"! Do not allow undesirable grips to creep into students' skill repertoires.

Keep in mind that more experienced players will have developed their own little "techniques" when performing certain skills. If such a student is experiencing success and teachers do not anticipate any problems with the development of future skills (this can be determined by checking the student's performance cues), avoid making major changes. Remember: "if it isn't broken, don't fix it."

Points to teach, review and reinforce:

• Proper grip is critical. It allows for correct rotation of the wrist when needed and allows for the necessary relaxed state before contact.
  
• How an object reacts after it has been hit depends on how stable the striking surface is. The racquet face must be firm. Firmness is determined by the strings and by the grip. Note that firmness is important, not tightness. Beginners often use a "death grip" on their racquets. This is a tension so tight that the muscles in the wrist and forearm are not able to relax. This can often be detected by the white colour of the knuckles.

Sample Activities:

Balloonminton

Simply substitute a balloon for a shuttle. This slows the game down so that the beginner has the time to concentrate on grip and preparation for hitting the object.

following is a tennis activity for those making the transition from beginner into intermediate. Here space and force become important.

Hit the Target

The object of this game is for players to use racquets to hit a ball over a net onto the wall and keep it going for a specified time period or number of hits. Players should be encouraged to move the feet into a position so that the majority of shots are forehand; second choice is backhand; discourage overhead shots as they are difficult to control and are not as "game related."

1

Alternatives:

• use a variety of balls (nylon, Nerf, tennis)
  
• change the height of the net or rope
  
• increase the distance between the net or rope and wall

What if you placed a target on the wall?

Could you allow only volley shots over the net or rope?

What would happen if you added a second net or rope parallel to the first one?

Here is an activity for "intermediate-moving-into-advanced" (transition) racquetball players. Success relies heavily on relationships (the relationships between the body, object, racquet and court).

Back Wall Play Test

This helps the player assess her or his ability to play balls that have rebounded off the back wall.

Set up the front wall like this:

2

Instructions to student:

You are to stand in the three-quarter court position facing the front wall. Your partner will provide you with 10 set-up shots by either hitting the ball onto the front wall hard enough to rebound off the back wall after one bounce on the floor or by tossing the ball at a 45 degree angle onto the floor about 1 metre from the back wall. Your task is to move into position and return the ball offensively (kill shot) to the front wall. The ball may strike either side wall during the flight to the front wall as long as it does not strike the floor before reaching the front wall.

Scoring:

Total your eight highest scores. The point value for each shot is the value indicated where the ball strikes the front wall. Shots landing on a line should be awarded the higher point value.

Basic Movement Patterns and Performance Cues Related to Racquet Sports

Sending

Beginner Direction of body alignment (base of support) Centre of gravity Visual Contact Point of release or contact Limbs in opposition

Intermediate Weight transfer Pre-stretch (wind-up) Range of Motion Length of pre-stretch and ofllowthrough

Advanced Clearing hips Motion/movement adjustment because of velocity Action of non-throwing/striking arm

Recieving

Beginner Visual Tracking Presentation of target Absorption Control

Intermediate Range of Absorption Hand-eye coordination Flight pathway interception point Direction of body alignment (base of support)

Advanced Setting up for next move Velocity of motion Centre of gravity

Locomotions

Beginner foot Strike Patterns Limbs in opposition Direction of body alignment Centre of gravity

Intermediate Propulsion Change of direction Methods of locomotion (developmental movement patterns) Generating Velocity

Advanced All body parts Controlling velocity Combination of movement patterns

See the Motor Skill Development section for detailed explanations of each performance cue.