Teaching is informed decision making. Everyday in their classrooms teachers make decisions about instructional alternatives, student learning, and curricular content. As indicated earlier in this document, there are few occasions when only one instructional approach will bring about the desired outcomes. When two or three options are available, the criteria used to make the final professional judgements become increasingly significant.
Choosing from among the models and strategies of instruction and the vast array of teaching methods is a complex task. It may help to be aware of the broad guidelines for instructional choices written by Carl Rogers (1969) over two decades ago:
Several variables must be considered when selecting the instructional models, strategies, and methods to use in a course, unit, or lesson. These variables include:
Making instructional choices is not easy because in some situations not all the variables can be accommodated to the same extent. The teacher may have to set priorities and make compromises. Sometimes it is desirable to have variety to arouse or maintain student interest. Perhaps, due to the student's developmental stage or lack of experience, a particular instructional method may not be appropriate. In all cases, teachers must be clear about the objectives to be achieved, the body of knowledge that is the vehicle for learning, activities that may be used, how the learning product and/or process is to be demonstrated (evaluated), and application of [earnings to new situations. Where appropriate, students should be included in decision making around these instructional choices. It is important that the objectives, instructional methods and activities, and evaluation be congruent.
Selection of Content and Experiences
Content and process selections must be based on the potential for helping the student to achieve objectives. The nature of the content and experiences, and the kinds of outcomes to be derived through a course, unit, or lesson must be determined. Learning outcomes that are social, affective, psychomotor, or cognitive need to be considered. The question of product versus process outcomes needs to be addressed. Examples of types of learning outcomes are listed below:
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Knowing about different types of learning outcomes is important when consideration is given to matching outcomes with instructional approaches. Consider the two examples that follow:
Example #1
Research indicates that facts and information can be learned efficiently through explicit teaching, a direct instruction strategy. Facts and information can also be learned in co-operative learning groups, an interactive strategy. It has been demonstrated that co-operative learning leads to interpersonal and social growth and reduction of prejudice. The choice of strategy, then, would depend on the focus of the experience.
Example #2
If the teacher wants students to practice problem solving, students must be actively involved. Interaction with others can be beneficial. The teacher can select a direct instruction strategy that might be used to provide background information before using either an indirect strategy (for example, the inquiry method) or an experiential strategy (for example, a simulation). Problem-solving can also be fostered through independent study. Furthermore, instructional strategies may be combined. For example, co-operative group investigation an inquiry may be used jointly to achieve interpersonal and social outcomes. Again, the choice of strategy is dependent upon the focus for the particular experience.
Selecting Inductive or Deductive Learning Sequence
Generally, teachers sequence learning in two ways: deductive or inductive. The terms inductive and deductive refer to the way in which ideas flow (Borich, 1988). Figure 7 illustrates the two.
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Figure 7. Deductive and Inductive Learning
In the deductive sequence, ideas proceed from generalizations, principles, rules, laws, propositions, or theories to specific applications. The deductive sequence involves presenting a generalization and then seeking or providing examples.
In the inductive sequence, students are encouraged to analyze information or data and hypothesize, discover a pattern, or draw a conclusion. The inductive sequence moves from examples to discovery or presentation of the generalization.
Both deductive and inductive sequences are valuable for teaching concepts, generalizations, processes, and skills. The teacher must decide which to select given the learning outcomes desired and the composition of the class. When choosing, the teacher should consider a number of factors:
Instructional methods tend to be either deductive or inductive, although some methods apply to either sequence. Many lessons can include both approaches.
Allowing for Student Choice and Responsibility
A high degree of teacher direction in a classroom exists when the teacher, with little or no input from students, is the one that determines the objectives, content, learning activities, classroom management rules and procedures, and assessment. A high degree of student responsibility exists when students determine their own needs and select content, experiences, evaluation methods, and format for learning. There is a continuum between these two and in any given classroom there is room for both, depending on factors such as the nature of the content and the readiness of students to assume increasing responsibility for their learning.
Some instructional strategies and methods are highly teacher-directed; for example, lecture, didactic questioning, and explicit teaching. Other teaching strategies and methods are strongly student-centred, such as inquiry, co-operative learning, and some experiential methods. Teacher directedness and student responsibility can shift and vary during a lesson or unit.
There is little disagreement that the ideas of students about their own learning should be sought and valued. Students are motivated when they are involved. In addition, knowing what students think can allow the teacher to make suitable adaptations and to work from the students' previous experiences.
Educators now recognize the need to teach students how to assume more responsibility and to trust them to exercise that responsibility. Support for resource-based learning and community involvement in instruction has also grown. This reflects the growing conviction that students should be allowed more choice and responsibility in their learning.
Factors to be taken into consideration when deciding on the degree of student choice and responsibility include:
While student maturity is obviously a factor, it is important to provide a conducive climate and ample opportunities for students to develop their abilities to make choices and assume responsibility for their own learning.
Selecting Types of Interaction
A major variable in selecting instructional approaches is the type of interaction desired. Basically, interaction can range from the total class to small groups to individuals working alone. A variety within a unit of study and throughout the year is desirable.
Individual students have their own preferred types of interaction. The teacher should be aware of and sensitive to these preferences, challenging students while striving to expand their ways of working. Teachers should recognize that individual preference is connected to preferred learning style.
Integrating the Common Essential Learnings
Because the C.E.L.s are to be integrated into curriculum content rather than taught separately, the selection of instructional approaches is a significant consideration. For example, specific instructional strategies and methods foster development of the different modes of communication -- listening, speaking, reading, and writing. The strategy of independent study, for example, helps to develop knowledge, processes, values, and attitudes associated with independent learning. The integration of the Common Essential Learnings into school subjects involves choice of curricular content, teacher modelling, and the selection of instructional approaches.
Practical Considerations
In addition to the previous variables that must be considered, there are personal, physical, and fiscal factors that affect instructional choices. The following list highlights some of these practical considerations.
Student Background: Does this instructional approach require understandings the students do not yet have? If so, can these be acquired prior to or during the lesson or unit? How can students' prior knowledge be tapped? Are there student characteristics that require adaptations of the material, setting, or instructional approaches? Can students' interests be addressed?
Teacher Background: Under what circumstances should this strategy or method be chosen? Does the strategy or method complement the teacher's preferred teaching style?
Time: Certain strategies and methods require more instructional time. Is the time available? Is the time required justified in terms of student learning?
Cost: Strategies and methods vary as to physical equipment and supplies required. What costs are associated with this method? Do the outcomes of this choice justify the cost?
Physical Environment: Can the classroom, resource centre, and/or the school accommodate the strategy or method being selected? Within the limitations of the situation, what adaptations can be made to accommodate the use of this method?
In order to select appropriate instructional models, strategies, and methods, the teacher must examine the scope and the limitations of each. Teachers must also consider the wide range of variables that affect instructional decision making, and make the best choices for their students and their situations.