Instructional Philosophy and Strategies

Instructional Philosophy

Learning is a process in which students construct meaning as they acquire new concepts and extend their understanding of familiar concepts. By interpreting new information and applying skills strategically, learners connect new knowledge and understanding to what they already know, and they reorganize or adjust their understanding to accommodate the new information and ideas. In order for learning to be effective, students require instruction in the use of a variety of meaning-making strategies and skills.

This section of the curriculum guide explains the philosophy behind the instructional practices that are effective in helping students to comprehend and interpret what they read, hear and view. Included in this section is information about:

• concept development and teaching
• language in the content areas
• building instructional scaffolds
• differentiated instruction
• values instruction
• skills instruction.

Concept Development

Humans organize information into meaningful patterns or networks known as schemas. These schemas represent their experiences with and understandings of a wide range of concepts.

The ease with which students learn new concepts varies depending upon their prior knowledge and experience, and their present schema with respect to the particular concept. Concepts and the words that represent them are learned most effectively if they are "anchored in the life experiences of the learner" (Frey, 1993). As students make connections with their own experiences, they develop a revised schema about the concepts under study.

Schemas, sometimes referred to as conceptual frameworks, are organized networks of knowledge and experiences about topics and concepts/ideas that create expectations as one reads, hears or views new information. Each person has his or her own schema about any concept based upon experiences with that concept. Each person adjusts his or her understanding of that concept by integrating the new information into a schema of prior knowledge.

Concept Teaching

Marland (1993) stresses that interaction, dialogue, personal involvement and experience with a concept are crucial in order for students to develop understanding of the concept. In other words, students must become active learners, creating their own meaning and understanding relative to the concepts they are attempting to learn. As well, Marland emphasizes the importance for creating an environment in which students are mutually respectful and are willing to take risks.

Children will not truly understand a concept until they have had an opportunity to reinvent it for themselves.

Piaget

Every learner has a personal schema of knowledge, experience and understanding that is organized into a framework or network that makes sense to her or him. In order to comprehend what they read, hear, or view, students must make connections between what they already understand about a concept and any new information that they encounter. As they access their prior knowledge, and use the new information to adjust, modify and reorganize their knowledge and understanding to accommodate what they have learned, students construct their own meaning of oral, written and visual text. For students who have difficulty making sense of what they read, hear or view, instruction and practice provide them with opportunities to develop these meaning-making strategies and skills.

The essence of instruction for active learning is helping students to acquire and extend their understanding of basic concepts, and to make decisions and solve problems relative to those new understandings.

To teach concepts, teachers can use the deductive or expository approach, or the inductive or inquiry approach. Both approaches include the same steps, but the sequence of the steps differs in each one.

Deductive Approach

The following steps outline the procedure when teaching about a concept using the deductive approach. Teachers should:

• assess students' prior knowledge about the concept
• name the concept and several synonyms for it
• present a definition of the concept
• use exemplars and non-exemplars to reinforce the critical attributes in the definition
• monitor student learning

Inductive Approach

The following steps outline the procedure when teaching about a concept using the inductive or inquiry approach. Teachers should:

• assess students' prior knowledge about the concept
• use exemplars and non-exemplars to reinforce the critical attributes of the definition
• name the concept and several synonyms for it
• encourage students to generate definitions
• monitor student learning

It is important that teachers monitor and assess students' concept development on a continuous basis to determine if there are misconceptions that require correction. When checking for concept understanding, teachers observe for students' abilities to:

• give definitions
• classify examples and non-examples
• use the concept name appropriately
• recognize new examples of the concept.

Language in the Content Areas

Language is an essential tool for learning in all subject areas.

Communication, one of the Common Essential Learnings, focuses on the language demands of each school subject and on the teacher’s role of developing students' communication abilities in all subjects.

The C.E.L. of Communication is based on three important principles that demonstrate the relationship between language, thinking and learning. These principles are:

• Learning in all subjects occurs through language. Learning and growth in language processes—listening, speaking, reading, writing, viewing and representing—are interconnected and inseparable from learning in each subject area.
• Growth in language abilities takes place as a result of planned language experiences using all language processes in conjunction with and in support of each other.
• Each school subject possesses unique (as well as common) language requirements. Language instruction needs to be incorporated into all school subjects, and should focus on the particular language demands of each subject in terms of teacher talk, language of resource materials and the specialized vocabulary and structured form of expression unique to that subject.

The Language Processes

Learners use language to receive, interpret and share ideas and information. Through the language processes--listening, speaking, reading, writing, viewing and representing—students construct meaning and develop their thinking abilities. Students use the receptive and expressive language processes to learn in all subject areas.

Listening-to-Learn

Listening is an essential component of the communication process. Effective listening is more than simply hearing. Comprehending oral information is a complex process in which listeners interact with a speaker to construct meaning within the context of their experiences and knowledge. Students develop the ability to be active, effective listeners when they deliberately attend to the speaker’s message with the intention of applying or assessing the ideas or information provided.

Effective listeners:

• actively try to assign meaning to the speaker’s verbal and nonverbal language
• determine their purpose(s) for listening
• respond appropriately to what is said and interact productively
• make connections between their prior knowledge and the information presented by the speaker
• distinguish fact from opinion
• identify main ideas and supporting details
• evaluate the speaker’s message and motive
• identify bias, stereotypical statements and propaganda.

Teachers can help students to become effective listeners by using instructional strategies that prepare them for their listening experiences, that actively engage them during listening and that clarify and extend their understanding after the listening experience.

Reading-to-Learn

As learners advance, managing content area material requires additional reading skills. Although some readers acquire effective reading strategies incidentally and automatically, others need instruction on using systematic strategies—both thinking (metacognitive) and active.

Tomlinson (1995)

Research reveals that reading is a primary vehicle or medium through which students gather information in order to expand and develop new concepts. Therefore, it is crucial that students are provided with instruction about how to make sense of the resources that they read.

In the Social Sciences, as in other content areas, instruction in reading does not mean teaching students how to read; rather it involves helping students develop strategies for reading-to-learn from their expository materials and resources.

Secondary Level students are readily able to read narrative text because that is the genre in which they have had the most experience. However, they often find it difficult to make sense of their expository materials and informational resources. Teaching reading-to-learn skills and strategies in the Social Sciences not only helps students read their expository text material, but also increases their abilities to comprehend the concepts and achieve the stated objectives.

Reading is an active process of constructing meaning. Reading-to-learn instruction in the content areas prepares students for what they will read, supports them as they access and interpret during reading, and clarifies and extends their understanding after they read. This helps them to integrate new information and ideas into their schemas in personally meaningful ways. In addition, this instruction helps students acquire new concepts and learn relevant content.

The following chart, which contrasts reading and meaning-making behaviours of proficient readers with those of ineffective readers, can be helpful as teachers strive to help students become effective readers of expository materials and resources.

Constructing meaning when reading, in other words, reading with comprehension, requires a wide range of skills and strategies. When students are reading to learn, they apply their current reading abilities, and develop other skills and strategies for comprehending and constructing meaning as they read expository text and resources.

Effective instruction in reading-to-learn increases students' abilities to:

• determine their purpose for reading and read with that purpose in mind
• recognize and select main ideas, and identify supporting details
• understand expository text structure (e.g., cause/effect, sequencing, compare/contrast, problem/solution, description)
• understand expository text format cues (e.g., heading levels; font styles: italics, bold; paragraphing; use of color, charts, and graphic organizers; side bars; glossary; table of contents)
• activate, access and connect/apply prior knowledge/ideas to text they read in order to draw conclusions and build new schema
• predict and infer meaning by using prior knowledge and text cues
• develop and use group interaction skills (e.g., discussion)
• summarize what they read in a variety of forms (e.g., written, oral, graphic organizer)
• develop subject-specific vocabulary
• make notes from their reading material
• select reading rates appropriate to the reading purpose (e.g., skim for specific details, scan for a general sense of the main idea)
• adjust their rate of reading to accommodate the density of text and purpose.

Reading Rate

It is important to make students aware that readers use different rates of reading, depending on the purpose for reading. Once students are aware of when to use different reading rates, they can adjust their rate of reading to accommodate the density of text and purpose. The following presents three basic reading rates and suggestions for when each rate may be useful.

Skimming (readers conduct a quick overview to get the overall gist of text)

• to get the overall general content of the material
• to decide if more careful reading is necessary

Scanning (readers glance over text in search of a specific detail) to locate a single piece of specific information (e.g., date, name, term)

Slow and Careful (readers wish to get an in-depth understanding of a passage or text to comprehend difficult or unfamiliar concepts and vocabulary (e.g., technical material that requires thorough examination and reflection)

• to retain detail (e.g., when summarizing or studying)
• to judge or evaluate ideas (e.g., article about an issue, novel study)

Viewing-to-Learn

Students encounter thoughts, ideas and information by viewing, as well as by listening and reading. The viewing process is a constructive process in which students build their schema about a topic or concept.

It is important for students to have opportunities to view a variety of media formats including visuals (e.g., photographs, political cartoons, graphs, charts, maps, art), drama (e.g., role play, live theatre) and other media (e.g., videos, television documentaries, CD-ROM). Each interaction between viewer and text differs because of students’ varying prior knowledge and cultural perspectives.

Speaking-to-Learn

Oral communication is a vital learning tool in any subject area. Classroom talk is both immediate and spontaneous (e.g., discussion, group interaction), and planned and deliberate (e.g., debate, oral presentation). Through verbal and nonverbal language, students express their thoughts and understanding.

Fluency and effectiveness in speaking develop gradually with practice and instruction. As students develop their speaking proficiency, they develop self-awareness and increase their abilities to interact effectively with others. Regular opportunities to engage in informal and formal talk increase students’ thinking and oral language proficiency in many ways, including their ability to:

• use language and share ideas appropriate to the situation
• respond to listeners’ cues by restating and clarifying their ideas
• use oral language for a variety of purposes (e.g., persuade, inform, entertain)
• consider others’ viewpoints
• explore and examine personal viewpoints
• identify flaws in their own reasoning
• determine what it is they need to know
• use effective methods of supporting their opinions.

Writing-to-Learn

Writing-to-learn strategies help students to explore ideas and make new information, concepts and vocabulary a part of their repertoire of language knowledge and use.

Writing is a complex process that allows learners to explore thoughts and ideas by making them visible and concrete. Writing encourages thinking and learning for the following reasons:

• Writing motivates communication by generating discussion and encouraging reflection on the thinking process and revision of recorded thoughts.
• Writing focuses and extends thought. It encourages the development of more complex thinking as ideas are analyzed, compared and evaluated.
• Writing makes thought available for reflection. When thoughts are written down, ideas can be examined, reconsidered, added to, rearranged and changed.
• Writing is multi-sensory. All of the senses—sight, hearing, taste, smell and touch—contribute as writers generate ideas and express opinions.

When students are given opportunities to put information and conceptual understanding into their own words, they come to understand better what they are reading, listening to and viewing.

Representing-to-Learn

Students most often express their thoughts, ideas and information in written and oral language; however, they should also be encouraged to use visual, dramatic and multimedia formats to represent their understanding and support their written and oral messages. Representing enhances speaking and writing when students support their oral and written expressions with various materials and media (e.g., using video or audio clips and visuals to enhance an oral presentation).

Students should have opportunities to communicate using a variety of representative formats including visuals (e.g., graphic organizers, collages, illustrations, photographs), drama (e.g., role play, readers theatre, simulation) and other media (e.g., audio and video recordings, Internet web pages).

Instructional Scaffolds

The learning process, during which students construct their own meanings and explore and expand their understanding, is a very personal and individual experience. Throughout the learning process, teachers provide students with necessary instruction and support by constructing instructional scaffolds that take individuals from where they are in their understanding to the next step or stage in their learning process.

Frequently identified as the one of the most effective instructional techniques, instructional scaffolding describes a process in which students and teachers collaborate to design appropriate support as needed for individuals or groups.

The teacher’s role is one of helping students toward new learning, assisting students during the learning process and assessing the skill, process or product to determine if further instructional scaffolds are necessary.

Instructional scaffolds must be designed to bridge the gap between what learners know and what they can do and the goal or skill they are attempting to achieve.

Instructional scaffolds should be flexible and temporary. As students become proficient with new skills and processes, they add them to their personal repertoire—they internalize them. When this occurs, teachers must allow students to proceed on their own, and continue to observe for opportunities to construct new scaffolds as the need arises.

Most scaffolding is brief and immediate, and is provided on a one-to-one basis as teachers circulate to observe students actively engaged in working and learning. However, it is also necessary for teachers to anticipate possible difficulties that students may encounter within a particular activity or process, and plan instructional scaffolds that will assist them prior to, and throughout the task (e.g., steps for writing summaries, procedures for giving oral presentations, stages of the research process).

Scaffolds may be constructed for individuals, small groups or large groups, depending upon the task and the students’ needs. Mini-lessons (10-15 minutes in length) are often all that is required for students to be able to proceed with the task. Subsequent mini-lessons can be provided, as students require new information and skills to continue their learning experiences.

Instructional scaffolds can be designed to teach students a variety of processes and skills, such as how to identify main ideas and supporting details, ask questions, cooperate in groups, predict, infer, summarize, do research, solve problems and so on. The teacher provides support only for the skills or parts of the process that students are unable to complete on their own. This support decreases as students’ levels of proficiency and competence increase, although they may require further scaffolding at another point in the task or process.

Differentiated Instruction

In order to build appropriate instructional scaffolds for students, educators must acknowledge that students learn at different rates, that they differ in their ability to think abstractly or understand complex ideas, and that they have different learning styles and strengths. Based on this understanding, teachers differentiate or adapt instruction to fit each learner's needs, styles and abilities.

Differentiating instruction to meet students' needs and abilities does not mean that all students cannot explore the same concept or topic. "Covering information takes a back seat to making meaning out of important ideas" (Tomlinson, 1995, p. 21). However, all learners need learning experiences designed to enhance their learning success. Differentiating instruction means making adaptations in one or more of the following:

• content—what students learn
• process—how students learn the content
• product—how students demonstrate what they have learned
• resources—the media from which students learn.

In a differentiated classroom, students and teachers are learners together. While teachers may know more about the subject matter at hand, they are continuously learning about how their students learn. Teachers assess students' readiness in a variety of ways and then design learning experiences based on their best understanding of students' needs and interests.

Tomlinson (1995)

Using differentiated instruction, teachers plan and use varied approaches to content, process and product in response to continuous monitoring of students' needs and abilities, recognizing that adjustments can be made as required.

The teacher's role in a differentiated classroom is that of a planner and facilitator of learning who gives students as much responsibility for their own learning as they are able to manage. In this role, teachers:

• assess students' needs and abilities in a variety of ways (e.g., observation, student conference, diagnostic test of a skill)
• interpret assessment data to determine students' learning needs and styles
• design a variety of ways that students can gather information and explore ideas (e.g., listening, reading, viewing--resource-based learning)
• develop a variety of ways that students can express and share their own information and ideas (e.g., orally, in writing, through a visual representation such as a collage or graphic organizer)
• provide a variety of options for teacher evaluation and student self-assessment
• offer students choices as often as possible:
• in their learning arrangement (e.g., working independently or in a group)
• in the ways that they will learn about the concept and the resources they will use to gather their information and ideas (e.g., print resource--fiction or expository; non-print--audio, video, human)
• in the ways that they will express, share or present the ideas and information to others (e.g., oral presentation, visual chart, role play, video production)
• keep records to chart students' growth related to the curriculum objectives and concepts being developed.

The Adaptive Dimension and Resource-based Learning are two Saskatchewan Education Core Curriculum initiatives that support differentiated instruction. See pages ??? in this curriculum guide for information about each.

Values Instruction

This curriculum provides students with learning experiences designed to help them understand some of the fundamental value positions within societies, and how they developed. While, at times, this curriculum deals with controversy, this should not be construed to mean that any belief is as good as any other belief. Even within a pluralistic society there are commonly held beliefs, and students should not be given the impression that all beliefs are equally defensible.

Exploring and examining controversial, value-laden issues encourages students to develop their own viewpoints, learn to respect others' viewpoints, and develop and apply higher order thinking skills to organize concepts and information in personally meaningful ways. Through this process, students begin to understand the role of values as the basis for making choices and decisions. From this point, students come to understand that values provide the criteria upon which traditions and organizations of society are based. Some such criteria include: human dignity, basic rights and responsibilities as defined in the Charter of Rights and Freedoms, and respect for and acceptance of individual differences based on human dignity.

In determining what is appropriate for the student in the areas of values objectives, teachers should be aware of both family and community standards.

Educational decisions related to values objectives in the classroom should reflect family and community standards, as well as those of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. In resolving conflict between these two positions, students should be encouraged to consider the consequences resulting from each position evaluated against socially constructive values.

Assessment of Values Objectives

Generally, teachers would be well advised not to evaluate value positions of students summatively. The effect of such evaluation would be to place oneself in the position of formally calling a student's values incorrect. This may be necessary on occasion in some situations relating to fundamental human rights. In most cases, however, there is such a wide variety of acceptable positions in a pluralistic society that instead of condemning, a teacher should try to pursue with the student the reasoning that lies behind the value position.

Values objectives in the curriculum guide call for the student to appreciate, understand or show concern for some aspect of social life. This is not a demand that students adopt a certain value position; rather, it is a suggestion that students should begin to understand some of the underlying moral, ethical and aesthetic implications of the social issue in question. Objectives of this sort lend themselves much more readily to informal methods of formative evaluation.

From individual, group and class discussion, teachers can get a "feel" for what students have learned about the values that have been discussed in the classroom. They are able to chart changes that occur in student values rather than making a final evaluation as to the quality of those values. These changes may be noted through the use of anecdotal records and checklists.

Students should be encouraged to develop the thinking and communications skills that allow them to develop legitimate value positions and express and defend their positions in open discussion or debate. Teachers may evaluate students' work from this perspective, provided it is clear that the evaluation is focused on the skills of thinking, logic and communication, rather than on a specific value position.

Note: A more detailed discussion of these issues can be found in Understanding the Common Essential Learnings: A Handbook for Teachers, Saskatchewan Education, 1988.

Skills Instruction

Skills should be introduced in ways that demonstrate to students how they can use these skills to accomplish tasks related to their thinking, understanding and learning, both inside and outside of the classroom. Students who recognize the usefulness of a skill will be more inclined to learn it.

Steps in skill development include:

• describe the skill and its purpose
• model the use of the skill
• guide student practice using assigned situations
• encourage students to apply their facility with the skill in other situations.

Skills are learned most effectively when:

• teachers provide instructional scaffolds at the time of need and within an appropriate context
• students are consciously aware of what they are expected to do (criteria), and how they are to do it
• students see the skill demonstrated or modelled by teachers, peers or others (e.g., write a summary in collaboration with students, read/ discuss examples of effective summaries and comparisons)
• students use feedback from teachers and peers to adjust and improve the effectiveness of their use of the skill
• students engage in regular practice of the skill
• teachers and students talk about what they did as they engaged in the skill
• students are provided with guided opportunities to apply the skill in other appropriate contexts.

Assessment of Skills Objectives

It is important in evaluation to show clearly that there is a relationship or congruence between what has been taught and what is being evaluated. If an important teaching objective has focused on a specified skill (e.g., summarizing, locating information) it is the acquisition of the skill that should be assessed.

It is equally important when assessing skills that the students be asked to demonstrate in some way that they know which skill is needed in a particular situation and how to apply it. The material or situation in which the student is being asked to apply a skill should be unfamiliar.

Instructional Strategies

The following section describes a variety of instructional strategies that can be used to assist students to develop processes, skills and concepts as they strive to comprehend their course material. Teachers are encouraged to review the instructional strategies described and exemplified, selecting and using the ones that best meet the particular needs of their students and the objectives of the course.

These strategies can serve as useful scaffolds for individuals, small groups or the entire class, depending upon students' needs. Instructional scaffolds are most effective when provided to students, as they require them, within the context of what they are attempting to achieve. However, when teachers are able to anticipate students' need for particular skills or knowledge, it is effective to plan instructional mini-lessons in advance. Scaffolds are intended to be temporary structures or information. As students have the opportunity to use these strategies, they internalize them and apply them independently.

Concept Maps

Concept maps are similar to other web diagrams in that they demonstrate connections between concepts; however, the difference is that concept maps also include a descriptor to show the links among the concepts. The links are labelled to explain the relationship between the concepts, which reveals the thinking process that has created those links. Arrows may be used to describe the direction of the relationship. These can be read like a sentence to follow the mapmaker's thought patterns.

Concept maps can be used to:

• think through a problem
• understand a body of knowledge
• explore new information and relationships
• activate prior knowledge
• share knowledge and ideas
• assist research
• make notes from a lecture or print source
• visually represent knowledge and relationships
• demonstrate knowledge and understanding.

When students develop concept maps, they are constructing meaning. Creating a concept map is not a linear process; it is recursive. In other words, at any time during the process, words and ideas can be added, deleted or rearranged as students recall what they know, learn new information and reflect on their understanding. While developing concept maps is a meaning-making process, some basic steps for getting started or learning the process include:

• Select the central concept, word, research question or problem that will begin the map.
• Identify related concepts, words or items that can be associated with the central concept.
• Organize the map by placing the central concept in a bubble at the top and arranging the related concepts, words and items around it or beneath it in a hierarchical format. Place these terms in bubbles as well.
• Draw lines from the central concept bubble to the other bubble to identify and articulate relationships or connections.
• Label the lines with words that describe the connections.

Note: Concepts are usually nouns and linking labels are usually verbs.

The concept map on the following page, begins with the concept of Rule of Law and provides an example of subsequent concepts and the linking labels.

Current Issues and Events

News sources today extend beyond newspapers to include weekly and monthly journals, radio and television news programs and documentaries, and the Internet. Researchers reveal that students who study news and current issues in school find the course material more relevant and are more likely to attend to news reports outside of school.

While teaching each of the units of study, teachers and students can watch for current news stories and issues that will assist in developing the concepts and achieve the objectives of the curriculum.

Incorporating relevant current news, both print and non-print, offers the following benefits:

• makes course concepts relevant to the lives of the students as they consider how these concepts apply and relate to their own lives and the world around them
• provides opportunities to learn concepts in ways that are immediate and meaningful
• provides concrete examples of abstract concepts
• develops informed citizens who are stimulated to learn more about particular issues and to take action according to their values and beliefs
• develops critical thinking and problem-solving skills
• provides opportunities for understanding issues from a variety of perspectives, and comparing news coverage from various sources
• enhances media literacy skills and technological literacy
• extends reading comprehension, and builds language, vocabulary and listening skills
• provides opportunities for collaborative and cooperative group activities, discussion and debate
• provides models for a variety of expository writing and speaking formats
• facilitates the use of graphs, charts and other visual representations of information
• develops effective, lifelong newsreaders, listeners and viewers.

The following activities are suggestions for ways that current events might be included in the curriculum. They will be most valuable to students if they are included within the context of lessons to help students develop the concepts and achieve the objectives of the curriculum.

Why is it News?

• Each day, newspaper editors around the world must make decisions about which stories they will publish. Stories make it into newspapers for many different reasons. Invite students to look at the stories that have made the front page of a local newspaper during the last few days and to discuss reasons why each of those stories made headlines.
• Explain to students that an event or story becomes news when it has at least one of the following characteristics:
• timeliness—news that is happening and of interest to readers right now
• closeness—the story happened nearby or is about a concern of local interest and impact
• impact (locally, nationally or globally)—the news makes a difference to the reader (e.g., news of a local property tax increase, changing of the immigration laws of Canada, threat of nuclear war somewhere in the world)
• immensity—the story is great in size or number (e.g., a flood or hurricane that devastates a community)
• human interest—something emotionally touching or moving (e.g., someone overcoming a challenge or achieving a milestone in life), or something unexpected or unusual (e.g., multiple births, a new invention)
• prominent person—reference to a prominent person or a famous personality
• conflict—a major struggle among people, groups or nations (e.g., wars, refugees).
• Discuss other front-page stories and have students consider why editors decided to put the story on page one. What makes it a newsworthy story?
• Compare several different newspapers. Are there differences in what is considered to be front-page news? What might be the reasons for the differences?

The Five Ws

• Introduce students to the five Ws found in most news stories. Often, the five Ws are introduced in a story's opening paragraph. Create an overhead transparency of a major news story. Invite students to talk about the who, where, when, what and why of the story. Circle or highlight and label the areas of the story that tell each of the five Ws. Then provide each student or group of students with a news story and ask them to report to the class the who, where, when, what and why of the story. Students might underline each of the five Ws with a different coloured marker. Select articles that are related to the concept being developed and that extend students' understanding of that concept.
• Have students write news stories about topics related to the concept that they are learning. Provide examples of news stories for use as models. Explain the elements of news stories: headline, byline, lead paragraph (briefly states who, what, where, when), body (provides explanation; adds more facts and details; often includes background information in a longer news story) and conclusion (briefly sums up the article). The following diagram shows the elements of news stories.

Comparing Media Treatments

• Today, students have a wide variety of information options—including television, radio, the Internet, and print sources such as newspapers and magazines. One way to show students the differences between these media is to select a topic and compare how it is handled by each of them.
• Have students form small groups and investigate the same story presented by different news media (e.g., television, newspaper, radio, news journal), or at different levels (e.g., local, national and international news). They might present their findings to the class and compare the news coverage. Venn diagrams and criteria comparison charts are useful for showing comparisons visually.

Voice Your Opinion: Editorials and Letters to the Editor

• Read an article or view a newscast about a controversial issue related to the concept being developed.
• Set up an audio tape recorder in a convenient location in the classroom. Pose an opinion question and give students time to think about it. When students are ready, they can take turns expressing their opinion on the recorder. Explain that students should state clearly their names and the title of the news item before giving their comments. This can be a little less threatening for some students than talking in front of a class would be. Once all students have had a chance to express their opinions, begin a class discussion about the question by playing back the tape or by sharing select opinions. Discuss different perspectives, the right to hold differing points of view, and the need to accept and respect that others' hold different views, and consider those views.
• Extend students' learning by having them write editorials for the local or school newspaper. Encourage them to express their opinions and provide clear justification and/or reasons for those opinions.

Political Cartoons

Newspapers frequently include political cartoons that express opinions about current issues and satirize the people involved. Analyzing and interpreting political cartoons can help students to identify other points of view on a topic, and to develop their critical thinking skills.

It is important to select news items and articles that are related to the concept(s) and/or topic(s) being developed in order to extend students’ understanding of the subject area , as well as about news formats, issues and items.

Political Cartoon Analysis Chart

Debate

Debating develops students' critical and dialectical thinking, helping them to become active listeners and to respect that a variety of valid viewpoints exist on any given topics. Debates may be formal or informal in structure. Both formal and informal debates have rules and defined procedures.

Formal Debate

Formal debate has a recognized set of rules and traditional procedures. Participants attempt to present the best arguments for or against a proposal, thereby defeating the opposing team. The purpose of formal debate is to help students develop their critical and creative thinking skills, strengthen their speaking abilities and practise their active listening skills.

Assess formal debate using criteria explained to students prior to engaging them in the process.

For more information about formal debate, contact the Saskatchewan Elocution and Debate Association (SEDA) on their website at http://www.saskdebate.com.

Informal Debate

Informal debates also operate under a set of rules; however, the rules are more flexible than those of formal debate and may vary from one situation to another. The purpose of informal debates is to help students work together to understand common issues.

Some guidelines for using informal debate include:

• Have students put their desks into a circle or horseshoe formation so that everyone can see and hear everyone else.
• The teacher is part of the circle formation and facilitates and monitors the process.
• Set a time limit for speakers (e.g., one minute), and establish that, until everyone has contributed once, no one is allowed to speak a second time.
• Set a limit for the number of times one student may speak (e.g., three times). Have students write their names on three small cards, and explain that they must give one card to the teacher each time they speak. This will encourage students to consider carefully what they have to say, and it will provide the teacher with a record of who made contributions during the debate.
• Conclude discussion once time is up, or once students have said all that they wish to say about the topic.
• Debrief by discussing the process of informal debate, and the results of the debate (e.g., ideas and opinions presented, changes of opinions and reasons for those changes, the value of hearing others' viewpoints). Alternatively, students might write about the experience and what they learned through the process.
• Give students a set of criteria for assessing their performance and the debating process. This may be in the form of an observation checklist for both teacher and student use.

The templates on the following pages are examples of tools that can be used to assist students and teachers as they prepare for and assess debate.

Rating Scale for Evaluating the Speakers in a Formal Debate

Needs Improvement Fair Average Good Outstanding	1st Affirmative Speaker	1st Negative Speaker	2nd Affirmative Speaker	2nd Negative Speaker
Organization and Strategy The speech should contain an effective introduction and conclusion. It should be well structured, logical and coherent. Argumentation and logic should be straightforward and relevant. As much as possible strategy and organization should complement one another.
Evidence Evidence may be facts, statistics and authorities offered in support of contentions. Credit should be given for thorough, relevant research.
Delivery The mechanics of good speech should be faithfully observed throughout: poise, quality, use of voice, effectiveness, ease of gesture, emphasis, variety and enunciation.
Refutation Each speaker should demonstrate ability to use evidence and logic to refute the contentions of his opponents and defend those of his own side.
Parliamentary Procedure Each speaker should demonstrate understanding of parliamentary procedure through adherence to the rule as well as correct, relevant use of questions, points of order, points of personal privilege and heckling.

Judge's Decision

The debate should be awarded to the team that bests supports its contentions through logic and evidence, and best refutes the contentions of its opponents.

If neither team meets its obligations, then the debate should be awarded to the team that best demonstrates the basic skills of debate.

(Adapted with permission of Saskatchewan Elocution and Debate Association.)

Decision-making Process

Decision making is the process of determining the best choice to be made when faced with a problem or a dilemma. Students need to be able to recognize when decision-making skills are required to arrive at a preferred choice from a number of alternatives.

The following guidelines may assist students in learning and using the decision-making process.

• Identify the problem or dilemma. Help students define the problem or dilemma faced in a concise and positive way. Have them consider who "owns" different parts of the dilemma or problem and decide which are within their ability or power to resolve.
• List alternative choices. Have students list as many alternative choices or solutions as possible.
• Consider the alternatives and predict possible consequences of each. Have students determine their goal(s) in solving the problem or resolving the dilemma. Encourage them to consider all of the factors involved, including values and feelings about each alternative, and the advantages and disadvantages of each.
• Have students decide whether it is necessary to obtain more information before choosing an alternative and, if so, where and how they can obtain the needed information.
• Explain to students that decisions usually have more than one consequence, so they must thoughtfully consider what could be lost and gained for themselves and for others in the short and the long term.
• Select and use the best alternatives. Have students decide which of the alternatives will most clearly meet their goals with the most positive and the least negative consequences.
• Instruct students to evaluate the choice that they make. Encourage them to reflect on whether their choice was satisfactory and whether they would choose it again. Also, encourage them to reflect on whether they learned anything by going through the process that will be helpful in future decision-making situations.
• Discuss with students the transferability of the skills in the decision-making process. In what situations (in and out of school) could they use what they have learned?

Dialectical Thinking/Reasoning

Dialectical thinking/reasoning refers to critical thinking, deliberately conducted in order to test the strengths and weaknesses of opposing viewpoints. Dialectical in intention, court trials and debates pit idea against idea, reasoning against counter-reasoning in order to discover the truth of a situation.

It is valuable for students to develop dialectical reasoning skills, so that their thinking moves comfortably between divergent points of view, and so that they are able to make some assessments of the relative strengths and weaknesses of the evidence or reasoning presented in support of opposing positions. Through an exploration of ideas, students discover that some ideas are inconsistent with others. They must learn to assess the conflicting ideas, evaluating each idea to determine its strengths and weaknesses, or how the two views might be reconciled.

Key Skills in Dialectical Thinking

The student will be able to:

• make an initial value claim expressing what is good, right or worthwhile concerning an issue
• provide supporting arguments for taking a particular position on the issue
• set out a value claim opposing that of the initial value claim
• provide supporting arguments for the opposing value claim
• create a dialectic by:
• acknowledging the existence of the opposing value claims
• pointing to some aspect of the opposing value claim that is worthy of consideration
• pitting the first set of supporting arguments against the second set
• come to a dialectical conclusion in which:
• one value claim is deemed to be the most correct
• another value claim is discovered to be better than either initial value claim
• both value claims are refined into a new synthesis

Dialectical Evaluation Model

Dialectical Evaluation Model

Checklist for Assessment of Dialectical Thinking

The Concept of Moral Testing

The Need to Make Moral Choices

In our daily lives, we must make choices that involve questions of honesty, the treatment of other people and acting responsibly. These are moral choices because they are about right and wrong. Moral choices are choices between what might be good for us personally and what would be good for others. We may want to do one thing, but we have doubts about whether we are doing the right thing. When a situation is morally doubtful, we have to have some basis for deciding what to do. Should an individualistic, personal point of view be taken? Should one always be "nice" and make sure that everyone else is satisfied? When should individuals look out for themselves and when should they be concerned about others?

Moral Reasoning as the Basis for Making Moral Choices

The concept of moral testing provides guidance for making moral choices. It is based on a number of principles or criteria:

• I may not do something unless it is right for everyone to do that thing
• I must be aware that my actions may be hurtful to others in some way
• I must be willing and able before taking action to:
• see out all the information about the effect of my proposed actions on others
• imagine the consequences of my action(s) on others
• imagine myself in the place of another person in order to better understand the effect of my actions on that person
• seek advice from others
• test the moral reasoning that I am using and reject it if it is faulty
• demand from others that they test their moral reasoning and reject it if it is faulty.
• After applying all of the above criteria, I must be resolved to carry out that which is morally correct and reject that which is morally wrong.

The Process of Moral Testing

All of the above principles can be summarized into three tests that can be used to determine whether a morally doubtful choice or action should be taken.

Before applying any of the tests, the moral decision-maker must:

• clearly understand the critical parts of the situation about which he/she is making a moral choice
• make a preliminary value claim (choice)
• clearly lay out the reasons for his/her value claim.

Following this, the moral tests may be applied, in any order.

The Process of Evaluation

When you have completed the moral testing, you then have to decide what you have learned. There are some things to consider when evaluating the results of moral testing.

• No test takes precedence over another test, so if a value claim fails any of the tests, then the value claim needs to be reconsidered.
• In selecting which the tests to apply, it must be remembered that:
• the most difficult test for any given situation should be applied
• not all cases apply to every situation
• the New Cases Test and the Role Exchange Test fit well for situations where an action will have negative consequences for one or more persons
• the Universal Consequences Test suits situations where the effect of many people performing the action will have negative consequences for others.
• Tests should continue to be applied until you are satisfied that the toughest test has been applied.

Discussion

Discussion is a speaking-to-learn strategy that assists students in developing their critical thinking and interpersonal skills. It gives them practice in expressing ideas orally in a logical manner and helps them to clarify thinking, hear others’ viewpoints, resolve conflicts, arrive at conclusions and find alternative solutions.

When instructing students to enter into discussions, it is important to clarify the purpose of the discussion and the procedures for the process. Discussion is guided by the central purpose of developing the group’s knowledge or understanding of the concept or topic being discussed. The discussion should be open-ended, and should not require students to come to a single conclusion. However, the group members should be able to provide reasons for their conclusions and support for their viewpoints.

During discussion, students should be expected to:

• listen closely to all contributions
• ask questions to clarify understanding
• summarize or paraphrase ideas expressed
• express own understanding and viewpoints
• give reasons for own viewpoints
• encourage everyone to contribute
• consider others' viewpoints
• criticize ideas, not people.

Teachers can build scaffolding for student discussions by clearly stating the purpose of the discussion, by setting expectations for group interaction, and by providing focus questions to initiate and guide the discussion. As well, teachers should make clear what the outcome of the discussion is to be (e.g., written product, action, oral report), and how the group will be expected to share information and ideas. Setting time limits for group discussions is necessary, so that students get on task immediately and stay on task.

Out-of-the-Classroom Excursions

Learning is enhanced in the context that best gives meaning to the concepts, skills, processes and values being taught. Learning experiences that take place in the community's museums, courtrooms, laboratories, streets and natural environments address the diverse learning styles of the students, enhance motivation and connect classroom learning to the real world.

For learning experiences outside of the classroom to be authentic and meaningful, teachers must plan and organize carefully.

Educational excursions beyond the boundaries of the regular classroom are intended to add meaning, vitality and interest to regular classroom experiences. They might be planned as motivating events to stimulate interest in a certain concept or topic. They may serve as first-hand research about an area already under study, or they may culminate a unit of study. These excursions encourage students to become active learners, and provide a way of relating theoretical study to practical problems and the real world, enriching the learning experience.

Some guidelines for planning and conducting out-of-classroom learning experiences include:

Prior to the Excursion

• Identify the purpose(s) for the excursion. How does it connect to what students are learning and doing in the classroom?
• Select the curriculum objectives that students will achieve through the excursion.
• Prepare students for the experience by activating and building their prior knowledge (e.g., concepts, cultural or historical context).
• Involve students in planning the excursion (e.g., develop questions for people they will encounter, choose activities, decide how processes and products will be assessed, contact resource personnel and make arrangements for the visit).
• Develop the activities that the students will engage in during the excursion.
• Develop the assessment strategies and templates that will be used during and following the excursion.

During the Excursion

• Observe students' experiences and keep records of their activities based on the assessment strategies and tools previously developed.
• Monitor students' experiences, building instructional scaffolds as needed to enhance their learning.

Following the Excursion

• Have students reflect on their experiences through writing and discussion.
• Have students demonstrate their learning by creating products that are useful and that reflect their learning (e.g., a collection of oral histories based on interviews with lawyers and others who are part of the legal system, a field guide to the workings of the research laboratory).
• Involve students in self-assessment and goal setting for subsequent excursions.

Graphic Organizers

Creating graphic organizers to illustrate the organization of ideas and information aids comprehension and learning.…the effects of graphic organizers are greatest when students have in-depth instruction and training in their use and when students construct graphic organizers themselves.

Bromley, K., 1995, p. 8

Graphic organizers are visual tools that develop students’ thinking and understanding by revealing patterns, relationships and interdependencies among ideas, concepts and information. Visual tools, such as graphic organizers, help learners to construct meaning because they "represent mental, flexible, often quickly changing, and highly generative patterns" (Hyerle, 1996).

Much of the information students encounter in printed text and other media is presented in a linear fashion. Students must work out relationships and construct holistic concepts for themselves, which is difficult without instructional scaffolds, such as graphic organizers. Students require instruction about how to connect their prior knowledge to new knowledge in ways that are personally meaningful to them, and to construct new understanding based upon the connections they make. Organizing and analyzing ideas, concepts and information using integrated, nonlinear visual representations helps students to identify relevant relationships, discard irrelevant data and develop higher order thinking skills.

Researchers report that teaching students to use visual tools, such as graphic organizers, enhances their:

• motivation to learn
• communication skills
• metacognition (the ability to think about their own thinking process and reflect on how they make meaning)
• comprehension and recall of information
• problem-solving skills
• higher order thinking (critical, creative and analytical thinking)
• organizational skills
• concept development.

The process of creating, discussing, sharing, and evaluating a graphic organizer is more important than the organizer itself. Students learn from the active investigation and negotiation, or give and take, that accompanies the use of a graphic organizer.

Bromley, K., 1995, p. 28

Students will require instructional scaffolds to support them as they become independent in the use of graphic organizers. Some guidelines for introducing a visual tool include:

• show one or more examples of the completed organizer
• explain the purpose of the organizer
• model the construction or completion of the graphic organizer to be introduced (the overhead projector works well for this because students can observe the process as the organizer is completed)
• have students work in groups to complete a sample (circulate to answer questions and assist)
• give students opportunities to practise independently
• monitor their continuous progress and assess their logic appropriately.

Students should learn to use graphic organizers for a variety of purposes, including:

• generating thought
• structuring thought
• transferring thought.

Organizers for Generating Thought

Graphic organizers for the purposes of generating thought develop as students express their ideas and share their knowledge about a particular concept. The resulting structures show intricate relationships between ideas and information. Webs or mind maps are non-linear structures useful for developing students’ quick generation of ideas, and their ability to make connections and think fluently. These types of organizers evolve during the thinking process and encourage free associations and links among ideas as they develop. Brainstorming techniques such as concept webbing, semantic mapping, clustering and mind mapping are examples of visual tools for generating and connecting ideas and information.

Organizers for Structuring Thought

Graphic organizers for the purpose of structuring thought are designed in response to a specific task, and enhance students’ abilities to organize, analyze and synthesize selected information from print text and other media. These graphic organizers are concrete, but flexible, structures that call for student input of specific information in response to questions or headings, and which guide their understanding of the interrelationship of such things as details to main ideas and causal relationships. These visual tools are often presented to students for the purpose of having them complete a content-specific task (e.g., to help students make sense of their print text materials). As students fill in the required data gleaned from their reading, listening or viewing experiences, they also develop their comprehension skills and conceptual understanding.

Organizers for Transferring Thought

Graphic organizers for the purpose of transferring thinking are designed to teach students to improve their understanding of content skills and concepts, and transfer understanding to other contexts. In some ways this type of visual tool is similar to that used to teach students to organize information and structure thinking; however, in addition to improving their content learning, these organizers are designed to develop basic thinking patterns and directly enhance thinking, reflection and metacognition. Examples of common visual tools for the purpose of developing these cognitive thought processes include: classification diagrams that show hierarchical relationships, flow charts that show sequential connections, fishbone diagrams that show cause-effect relationships and Venn diagrams that show comparisons. While these tools are relatively concrete structures, students use them for constructive thinking and create their own transfer of thinking processes from one context to another.

The three purposes of graphic organizers outlined above are not exclusive of each other. While the focus may be on one purpose, other thinking skills are engaged and developed simultaneously. Also, it is possible to use one graphic representation for more than one purpose.

Extended Learning with Graphic Organizers

Following construction or completion of a graphic organizer, have students write and/or discuss what they have learned about the concept or information and about their thinking processes. For example, students who have completed a flow chart organizer could write a paragraph summarizing, in their own words, the series of events or the steps in a process.

Then, they could orally explain their summary to a partner or small group, referring to their organizer or written summary if necessary.

Interviews

An interview is an effective way to gather information and provide the participants with practice in improving speaking and listening skills. Results of interviews can be prepared for inclusion in research reports or presentations.

Students might interview people from the community or topic experts who have first-hand experience or knowledge regarding topics being researched. It is important that students view the interviews as authentic learning experiences, and see definite and articulated connections with what they are doing or learning in the classroom. For example, a student could arrange an interview with a community Elder where Aboriginal treaty agreements are being researched, or with a local politician if the political system was the topic.

Effective interviews are the result of careful planning. The teacher and students together should draw up a checklist of preparation that must be made for interviewing. The following sections describe some guidelines for conducting successful interviews.

Prior to the Interview

• Determine the purpose of the interview and state it clearly.
• Make arrangements for the time, place and setting of the interview so they are convenient for both parties, and confirm arrangements the day before the interview.
• Become informed about the topic of the interview. Learn any special vocabulary needed to talk about the topic. Try to become familiar with some current information on the topic.
• Examine personal opinions and attitudes about the interviewee and the topic of the interview.
• Plan the opening remarks in advance. These should include the purpose of the interview and the initial questions.
• Plan how the interview will be documented. Request permission before making audio or video recordings of the interview.

• Use language that is appropriate to the setting, the subject and individuals present.
• Be alert to nonverbal cues from the interviewees. If they seem offended or confused, restate the question or adjust language use to fit the situation.
• Maintain a friendly interested attitude. Always be polite. Offer reassuring comments.
• Make continual checks for understanding. Summarize especially long or complicated responses. Ask follow-up questions.
• Let the interviewee do most of the talking.
• Use appropriate nonverbal cues to show interest and support. Remember that what is appropriate varies with cultures and situations.
• Conclude the interview by thanking the interviewee for participating.

Following the Interview

• Debrief with students by discussing the interview process and the results of the interview. Audio or video recordings of the interview can be discussion starters.
• Involve students in reflection, self-assessment and goal setting for improving subsequent interviews.

Jigsaw Groups

The jigsaw is one of the most powerful learning strategies for teaching and studying narrative and expository material. This approach allows the teacher and the students to work through large amounts of material in a relatively short time.

Dueck and Layh, 1991

The jigsaw strategy creates interdependence among the group members because each member has a responsibility to learn designated material and teach it to the other members, and to learn the material that others teach him/her.

Some guidelines for jigsaw learning include:

• Explain the learning objectives and assessment criteria and techniques.
• Divide the class into heterogeneous "home" groups.
• Give each member of the home groups a different section of the material to be learned.
• Have students reorganize to form "expert" groups in which each member has the same material to learn.
• Instruct each member of the expert groups to read his/her material, identifying key ideas and
• information. The groups then discuss the key points and decide what and how they will teach the members of their home groups. The teacher may wish to prepare a listening, reading or viewing guide to help students develop their expertise.
• Have students return to their original home groups. Each member teaches what he or she has learned as part of the expert group.
• Encourage other members of the group to ask questions to clarify their understanding as their peers teach.
• Plan follow-up activities in which students apply what they have learned.
• Give students opportunities to reflect upon their individual and group performance.
• Evaluate the process and product according to previously developed criteria.

Content Journals

The content journal, sometimes called a learning log, is a useful writing-to-learn strategy that provides opportunities for students to keep a continuous record of their learning as it happens, as well as a place to record their observations and questions.

A content journal is a place for students to record their personal insights, questions, confusions, disagreements, and frustrations about what is being learned….Journal writing is primarily writing students do for themselves; it helps them sort out what they think about what they are learning.

Moore, et al., 1998, p. 198-199

In addition to being a place where students can explore and reflect upon their own learning, content journals are a source of information for teachers about students’ attitudes, interests, understanding, concept development and skills. This information helps teachers to decide what needs to be taught to whom at any given time. The teacher can then provide instructional scaffolding as necessary.

The use of content journals can be loosely structured or highly structured. When the structure is loose, the teacher may require a certain number of entries each week, but students write independently, choosing their own topics and formats to explain their understanding of and response to what they are learning (e.g., some students may write a diary, others may write a letter to the teacher or a peer, some may use illustrations or graphic organizers).

When the use of content journals is highly structured, the teacher requires students to respond to specific concepts, ideas, information and questions being explored in class, and usually determines the format the response will take. As well, teachers provide time for students to write in their journals daily (e.g., five minutes at the end of class, two minutes to record their current knowledge about a specific concept that is about to be introduced). Teachers usually provide prompts such as a statement, topic or question to stimulate thinking, focus responses and encourage reflection. Prompts may be specific or general. Some general prompts include questions such as:

• What did you understand about the concept discussed in class today?
• What is confusing to you about the concept?
• How does what you learned today relate to your life experiences? Explain.
• What specific questions do you have about the skill/concept we are learning?
• What is your response to the article you were assigned to read?
• How does the viewpoint of the documentary differ from your viewpoint on the topic?
• What emotions did you feel when you heard the speaker describe…?

Provide students with model examples of effective journal entries. Discuss criteria for effective reflective and critical thinking skills, and explain the difference between recalling information and interpreting and responding to the information. Emphasize that students are expected to express their own thinking and ideas.

While reading the journals, some teachers write comments to the students, creating a written dialogue about how well students are learning the course material and how clearly they express what they have learned.

Moore, et al., 1998, p. 199

Assessment of content journals is usually informal, the purpose of the assessment being to inform the teacher about instruction needed by each student. Although teachers do not grade each journal entry, they may give students points for writing regularly, keeping their entries up-to-date and demonstrating reflective, critical and analytical thinking skills.

Problem-solving Process

Problem solving involves finding the best possible solution to a problem using a clearly defined process. Students engage in many lifelong learning skills during the process of problem solving, such as communicating, accessing and selecting information, making decisions, thinking critically initiating change and accepting consequences of change.

Guidelines that support students as they learn the problem-solving process include:

• Identify the problem and the causes of the problem. It is important that the group agrees on a general statement of the problem and considers all possible causes of the problem.
• Determine possible solutions. Brainstorming is an effective strategy at this stage. Allow time to discuss the problem, web possible solutions and address the question "Is this solution within our control or parameter of influence?
• Select the best solution. Coming to the best solution as a group can involve consensus decision making, voting, interviews, surveys or the gathering of data. All group members should be able to articulate the chosen solution and state reasons for choosing that solution.
• Create an action plan for the solution and follow it. The plan should be detailed and should include the following: who is to take responsibility for initiating the plan, how the plan will be implemented, how progress will be monitored, at what point in the action plan the preferred solution will be evaluated, and by whom it will be evaluated. Once developed, the plan should be put into action.
• Evaluate the effectiveness of the solution. Once a solution is implemented, the changes that result will usually cause other problems to surface. The evaluation of the solution will either result in celebration or the initiation of a new cycle of problem solving.
• The graphic organizers on the following pages can serve as scaffolds for students as they learn to problem solve.

Problem-solving Process

Statement of the Problem

Possible Solutions 1.       2.       3.

The best solution is # because……

Action Plan for Solving the Problem

Problem-solving Graphic Organizer



Research Process

In Social Science classes, students are often required to do research and create reports using their research. Just as often, students are not provided the necessary instruction and practice that will allow them to accomplish their task successfully. It is crucial that teachers and students view research as a process, and that they take time to follow the process in order to develop their research skills and write clear, effective reports.

The following example is a step-by-step guide (adapted from Write More Learn More: Writing Across the Curriculum, Phi Delta Kappa, 1988) with which to develop students’ abilities to locate, gather, select, and organize ideas and information.

Researching and creating interesting, well-structured reports require instruction and practice. Using this step-by-step guide takes time; however, it is time worth spending because the instructional scaffolds eventually become internalized. Each time students go through the research process, they adapt it to fit their own learning needs and styles, thereby becoming more adept at the research process.

Research requires that students receive instruction that assists them to:

• select and narrow a topic
• access and select a variety of sources of information
• locate and gather relevant and current information from within those sources
• determine purpose, audience and format for the report
• organize the information into a meaningful report (oral, written or multimedia).

Timelines suggested for each step of the research process are approximate. Teachers are encouraged to assess their students’ abilities and needs and adjust the times accordingly. It is important that students have adequate time for each step as they go through the process.

Step 1 - Topic Selection
Materials	Preliminary research information form An example of a completed preliminary research form Scheduled time in the library
Time	1 Hour
Procedure	Explain to students that they will begin the research process by selecting a topic for a research report. (The teacher may narrow the range of topics if it is to have a specific focus, or leave topic selection wide open.) Explain that writing the report will take time, that a series of steps will be introduced one at a time, and that selecting a topic is the first step. Brainstorm with the whole class topics that could be used for the students’ reports. List all possible suggestions on the chalkboard. Then have students meet in small groups to discuss their interests and possible topic choices. (Each student may be instructed to choose a different topic, depending upon the concept being developed, the purpose of the report and/or the available resources.) Distribute the preliminary research forms to the students. Explain that the purpose of the form is to record information they find about each initial topic of interest. Each student must choose three topics from the previously brainstormed list, and take the form to the library to see what information of interest and relevance is available about each one. (This should eliminate the problem of a student choosing a topic only to discover that the library has little or no information about it.) Provide an example of a completed preliminary research form to demonstrate how students are to complete it.     Take the students to the library to do their preliminary research. Explain the various sources for information, and help students to use the electronic card catalog, Internet, CD-ROMs, magazine indexes, etc. Circulate among the students to help them locate resources and successfully complete the form. When students return to the classroom, discuss the sources of information they discovered. (What type of resource did they find most useful? Most current? Most difficult to access?) This will guide the teacher’s decisions about further instruction that may be required on how to access library information resources. Have students review their topics and the information they gathered. They may find it useful to have brief small group discussions before finally determining their choice of topic. Have students highlight their chosen topic on the preliminary research form. Using a previously designed checklist and/or anecdotal record chart, give students credit for going through the topic selection process, for doing adequate research to complete the preliminary research forms, and for making final decisions about their topics.
Assessment Suggestions Involve students in the development of the assessment criteria, and/or inform them of the criteria, prior to beginning each step of their research.

Preliminary Research Information Form

Student Name	Date
Topic 1 Interesting Information	Sources
Topic 2 Interesting Information	Sources
Topic 3 Interesting Information	Sources

Topic Selection Assessment Checklist

Criteria	Yes	No
Process contributed to brainstorming a list of topics identified three topics of interest attended to explanations about locating resources and searching for information engaged effectively in searching for and locating information
Product recorded information about each topic recorded a variety of sources accurately selected one topic for further research
Additional Comments

Step 2 - Narrowing the Topic
Materials	Preliminary research information forms (completed) A prepared example of a KWL chart and sample outlines/graphic organizer
Time	1 Hour
Procedure	Explain to students that, now that they have selected a topic, their next step is to narrow the topic by deciding what it is they want to know about the topic, and what information they will present to their readers. Have students complete the KNOW and WANT TO KNOW columns of a KWL chart (see page 361 for an example of a KWL chart). Instruct students to write their list in the WANT TO KNOW column in question form for research purposes. Give examples of completed columns, or model the task by filling out a chart on the chalkboard or overhead projector. Instruct students to use their lists to complete the CATEGORIES OF INFORMATION section of their KWL charts. Explain that this narrows their topics and focuses their research. Explain that they must create a report outline or graphic organizer. Discuss and demonstrate the different formats that an outline can take (e.g., traditional, web, graphic organizer). Explain that an outline, web or graphic organizer helps the researcher stay focused on the kind of information needed for the report. The following examples demonstrate the format for outlines, webs and graphic organizers that may be used. Traditional Outline Format Write on the chalkboard a topic (e.g., the name of a person well known in history, an issue or event). Brainstorm with the class the kind of information available in the library about the topic. Have the class select two or three categories of information. Demonstrate how to write a report outline using the chosen categories as headings. Topic: Japan I. Introduction II. The Island Country A. Location 1. Latitude and Longitude 2. Relative Location B. Climate C. Landforms 1. Mountains i. Volcanoes ii. Earthquakes 2. Plains III. The Japanese Family A. Kinship Patterns 1. Extended Family 2. Nuclear Family B. Family Homes C. Food and Clothing (etc.)     Graphic Organizer Outline Format Point out that questions beginning with WHO, WHAT, WHERE, WHEN, WHY and HOW produce more useful information for writing and researching than do questions that begin with other words (e.g., is, are, was, were, would, could). Explain that a question that can be answered with yes or no is not a useful research question because it does not encourage explanation or elaboration. Provide time for students to write their outlines or prepare graphic organizers, and share these with peers. Circulate among students to assist when needed. Use a previously designed checklist of criteria to give students credit for going through the process and for developing outlines that will successfully guide their research.
Assessment Suggestions Checklists are useful scaffolds, making students aware of expectation guidelines or goals as they progress through the activity.

Step 3 - Locating and Gathering Information
Materials	Note-making guide An example of a completed note-making guide
Time	1 Hour
Procedure	Explain to students that notes are short reminders of ideas and information found in the resources, and that these are written in the student’s own words. Use an example, such as the one below, to demonstrate how to make useful notes. Put an excerpt from a resource on the chalkboard or overhead to show the class how this same information can be written as brief notes. Excerpt from resource: Canada became a nation in 1867. At that time the Canadian government feared that the United States might take over the Canadian West. How could the Canadian government prevent the Americans from claiming the West? If Canada was going to become a strong nation, the government had to get people to settle the West. A railway would have to be built so that people and their belongings could get to the West. Immigrants would have to be attracted to settle the new land. From 1870 to 1896, the West’s population still did not grow very quickly. In 1885 the district of Alberta had a population of only 15,500. Canada was still a strong part of the British Empire. The Canadian government wanted British people to come to Canada. However, not enough British people wanted to come to Canada. The government had to look elsewhere for immigrants. It began to look in other parts of Europe like central and eastern Europe. The government helped some of these people come to Canada by paying for transportation and granting large tracts of land. The government gave loans and promised certain religious groups they would never have to fight or go to war. The Hutterites and Mennonites are two groups who came because of this promise. (Excerpt from The Search for a New Homeland: Polish and German Speaking Canadians, Palmer and Frideres, 1990, p. 5) Example of brief notes gleaned from the above excerpt using words and phrases: Canada. Government feared US takeover because population sparse; needed to attract immigrants; built railway; gave loans; gave land; no war duty for religious groups; immigration increased from Europe; Hutterites, Mennonites Next, give students an excerpt and have them practice. This is most effectively done in pairs or small groups because discussion encourages thinking. Remind students that notes should not be worded the same as the source. The notes are just reminders of ideas, and the reminders must be written in the student’s own words, initially using words, phrases, and incomplete sentences, which they will ultimately write in sentence form. This prevents copying.     It may be appropriate at this time to provide students with instruction about recording bibliographic information appropriately. Give each student a copy of the note-making guide and have students enter their topic and categories in preparation for gathering relevant information. It may be necessary, depending on their experience, to instruct students to collect a specific number of notes for each category. Explain that when they are researching for information, they may find other interesting information beyond the information in their questions. Encourage them to take down these notes as well, creating new categories, if necessary, under which to gather the information. Students are now ready to go to the library to locate and gather information and take notes about the topics that they have selected.
Assessment Suggestions Anecdotal notes, taken throughout the research process, are useful as reminders of where students require further instructional scaffolds.	Using a previously developed checklist or anecdotal note chart, collect data about students’ abilities to focus on their research task, take adequate notes, record information in their own words and read for specific information. Once students have completed the research process, they will be ready to report their information in written form, orally or in multimedia formats. Encourage them to choose the format that presents the information most effectively. Provide instructional scaffolds to students about each of the formats, as needed.

Note-making Guide

Topic
Category 1	Notes	Sources
Category 2	Notes	Sources
Category 3	Notes	Sources

Reporting Research Information

The following section provides information on guiding students through the process of writing reports, and creating oral and multimedia reports.

Written Reports

Step 1- Writing the Body of the Report
Materials	Notes gathered on the note-making guide
Time	1 to 3 Hours
Procedure	Tell students that it is now time to write their reports. Explain that using their notes to write their own sentences is a way of ensuring that the report is truly their own. Explain that copying directly from a source constitutes plagiarism and results in a report that is not their own. Discuss audience and purpose. The audience (readers) of the report will be their peers, and the purpose is to share specific information about the selected topic. Remind students to think of their audience and purpose as they form their ideas and notes into sentences and paragraphs. Write an example paragraph together as a class before students write their own paragraphs. Use a prepared example of notes and circle the ones that go together, thus helping students recognize that different pieces of information can logically be put together in paragraphs. In other words, each category gets its own paragraph, which includes several sentences. Explain that together you and the students will write an example paragraph. Now form sentences from the notes. Write a sentence that tells what the paragraph is about and a sentence that concludes it. Point out that the introductory sentence and the concluding sentence must tie the information in the paragraph together. Ask, "Do you like what we have written?" Writing paragraphs from notes is difficult, and some students may need more practice.
Assessment Suggestions For accuracy of observation, select only a few criteria at one time.	Notes: Canada. Gov’t feared US takeover because population sparse; needed to attract immigrants; built railway; gave loans; gave land; no war duty for religious groups; immigration increased from Europe; Hutterites, Mennonites Paragraph based on notes from above: The Canadian government had a problem because it was afraid that if it did not increase the population of the country the USA would take over. Therefore, the government set out to attract immigrants by building a railway, giving away loans and land, and promising that certain religious groups would never have to go to war. As a result, immigration to Canada increased and there was less likelihood that the USA would take over the country. Now students are ready to try writing their own sentences and paragraphs. Have students circle notes that go together before they begin writing. Provide time for students to write a paragraph for each of their categories. Circulate to assist as needed.   As they finish, have students revise their report by reading it over and adding words or ideas that add clarity and detail, or deleting repetitive and unnecessary information. Following their revision process, in which clarity of meaning is the focus, have pairs edit for writing conventions such as complete sentences, capital letters, and punctuation.
	Using previously prepared checklists, assess students’ abilities to go through the writing process - writing, responding to a peer’s writing, revising ideas and content, and editing for accuracy of language use. Using a previously prepared checklist, assess the students’ abilities to transform their notes into sentences and paragraphs for each of their categories.

Step 2- Writing the Introduction
Materials	All notes and information collected, and the body of the report
Time	1 Hour
Procedure	Explain that reports have three parts: an introduction, a body and a conclusion. Tell students that they have written the body, or that part of the report that gives information about the topic. Now it is time to write the introduction. Ask students if they have ever introduced someone (friend to a parent, friend to a friend). What do people like to know about a person that they are meeting for the first time? Introductions should be designed to hook the reader and help him or her get a sense of what to expect in the report. Explain that each student is now an "expert" on his or her topic, and that, he or she must help the readers become "experts" too. To do this, the students must give the audience some very specific information in the introductory paragraph. The introductory paragraph should capture the reader’s interest, and may include information that: has a humorous tone or tells a story related to the topic defines the topic of the report or hints at what is to come gives two or three interesting facts that will be referred to later uses a question or two to get the reader's attention identifies the main points that the report makes begins with a surprising fact or a quotation. Sentences to avoid include: I am writing my report about… This report covers… In this report I will tell you about…. Explain to students that reports are more interesting to read when the writer does not say directly what the report is about, but gives the reader hints in the introduction. The writer lets the reader discover what the report is about from the sentences that give the hints. A good way to decide what to say in a sentence that hints about the information in each category is to ask yourself, "Why did I select this topic? What did I want to learn?"   Provide the students with an example of an introduction and discuss how it captures the interest of the reader. Point out how it avoids the use of the sentences listed above. Sample introductory paragraph: Does the world face an environmental crisis? It is difficult to ignore the daily reports of environmental disasters occurring in all parts of the world. We hear about oil spills contaminating the oceans, industrial air pollution, sewer and garbage affecting water quality and many other ways that humans are damaging or destroying our life-sustaining environment. If we believe all that we hear and read about environmental disasters, it would be fair to assume that the answer to the question is "yes!" Provide the time for students to write their introductions. Circulate to assist students as they write. As they complete their writing, have them find a partner and respond to each other’s writing. Allow them time to revise and edit after they have heard one or two peer responses.
Assessment Suggestions Use anecdotal notes or a pre-designed checklist to see that the introductory paragraph meets the criteria.
Step 3- Writing the Conclusion
Materials	All notes gathered, the body, the introduction
Time	1 Hour
Procedure	Review the parts of a report (introduction, body and conclusion). Explain to students that conclusions are endings. Discuss kinds of written works that have endings (e.g., books, stories, television shows, speeches). Discuss the purpose of endings, and how readers may feel when the ending is left unexplained. For example, if students saw only the first part of a movie, or heard the first part of a story, how would they feel? Why are endings important? Discuss endings and their importance to readers, listeners and viewers. Discuss how the ending is a way for the writer to leave the reader with the main point or idea in the report. Ask students what kinds of things their audience might want