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This unit serves as the basis upon which all of the other units of study are developed. It sets the context for the course by describing psychology as an empirically based, scientifically conducted discipline. This unit introduces the origins, development and perspectives of psychology, setting the foundation for a consideration of research methods by which the students then can begin to acquire knowledge about the concepts of social psychology. The next step in the process involves organizing and integrating the new knowledge by making connections with their existing knowledge and understandings, as well as make connections between psychology and other disciplines. Finally, students can begin to apply those concepts and understandings in a practical, contemporary manner.
Time Frame: 5 – 10
hours
Knowledge
· To understand
how thoughts, feelings and behaviours of people are influenced by the actual,
imagined or implied presence of others
· To understand
the role, function and applicability of social psychology
· To understand
the contemporary Western and Aboriginal perspectives on social psychology
· To understand
the design, conduct and ethical issues of scientific research.
Skills
· To organize
and integrate new knowledge and understandings by making connections with existing
knowledge and understandings
· To organize
and integrate new knowledge and understandings within the discipline of psychology
· To organize
and integrate new knowledge and understandings with other disciplines
· To apply
those concepts and understandings in a variety of practical, pertinent and contemporary
issues
· To conduct
research into topics and issues related to social psychology
· To compare
and contrast methods of data collection, synthesis, organization and presentation
· To conduct
research into issues of social psychology.
Values
· To appreciate the complex, dynamic, reciprocal and personal aspects of human social cognition, influence and interaction
· To value and cherish human life as precious and sacred.
1.1 What is social psychology?
1.2 What influences human social action and interaction?
1.3 What are the different perspectives on human social action and interaction?
1.4 How do we make sense of our behaviour?
1.5 Action research in social psychology
○ Is it right to steal life-saving medicines that you cannot afford?
○ Should you tell the police if your best friend committed a crime?
○ If you found a large sum of money in an unmarked envelope, should you keep it?
○ gender development
○ personality
○ aboriginal spirituality
○ cultural Industries (fashion, music,
beauty)
○ advertising.
Resource-based learning is an integral part of all units. The accompanying bibliography will assist you in incorporating a variety of resources from different media into each unit. This annotated bibliography should be available from your teacher-librarian or the Learning Resources Distribution Centre. The bibliography contains annotations of current, useful resources including print, video, Internet sites and other media selections. Teachers are encouraged to assess their current resource collection, identify those that are still useful, and acquire small quantities of each new title, rather than class sets, in order to provide students with a broad range of perspectives and information.
The following list of evaluated resource titles provides a starting point for developing a resource collection that is current and relevant, and that addresses students' various learning styles and abilities. Please refer to the bibliography for a complete list of resources giving the full citation, annotation, and ordering information. Please note that many of these resources can be ordered through the Learning Resources Distribution Centre (http://lrdc.sasked.gov.sk.ca/). Videos may be available from Media Group (http://www.sasked.gov.sk.ca/video). At the time of publication all of the resources listed here and in the bibliography were in print and available.
Please note that LRDC will be closing effective March 31, 2003. If you need assistance acquiring Saskatchewan Learning materials after that date, please contact 787-5987.
Print Resources
How to Think Like a Psychologist: Critical Thinking
in Psychology
How to Think Straight About Psychology
Perspectives in Psychology
Sacred Tree
Understanding Psychological Research:
An Introduction to Methods
Internet Sites
http://www.arts.usask.ca/takingthepulse
http://www.readersdigest.ca
http://www.lyrics.com
What is social psychology?
Social psychology is the study of how the thoughts, feelings and behaviours of individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others (Alcock et al., 1998, p. 11).
Social psychology deals with human interaction – the way people relate to one another and the way people influence one another. How can we understand human relations and social influence? By studying the way people feel and the way people think – in short, by studying the heart and the mind (Aronson et al., 1994, p. 5).
How can social psychology make a positive difference in our lives?
Social psychologists have worked to understand such phenomena as economic depression, attitude formation, racial prejudice, adaptation and acculturation of immigrants, friendships and relationships, the effects of the Canadian multiculturalism policy, social norms of behaviour, group dynamics, propaganda and conformity, the development of racial identity among native children, conflict resolution, cognitive processes such as memory, attention and problem solving, environmental issues, marital conflicts, addiction and aggression (Alcock et al., 1998, p. 9).
What is your metaphor for life?
On the television show Ally McBeal the characters have theme songs. The songs are supposed to reflect how they live their lives, or maybe how they would like to live their lives. Most of us don't have theme songs, but we often have metaphors for our lives that either help us or hinder us.
Some people see life as a battle. Every encounter is a struggle, and if they don’t win, they feel like they have lost. Others view life as an adventure. A new day brings new opportunities to explore. If something goes badly today, there’s always tomorrow.
How do these metaphors develop? As children we begin to understand and organize the world. If we think of the brain as a filing cabinet, then childhood is when we open the files and label them. We often spend the rest of our lives putting new material in these old files. If childhood was healthy, then we may have a pretty good filing system. If it was a struggle, then we often see struggles for the rest of our life.
What are your metaphors? This is not usually obvious. We have to stand back a long way to see patterns like this in our lives. A few examples:
A battle – Everything is a competition or
a struggle. We are always either winning or losing.
A garden – Relationships are cultivated
like flowers or vegetables. We see things as growing, flowering or producing.
A mission – We believe that we have
the truth and we need to convince others that our point of view is right.
A journey or an adventure – We travel
from place to place meeting new people and exploring.
A building – Starting with a solid foundation,
then adding floors and rooms.
A roller coaster – Life consists of
ups and downs, and we are along for the ride.
A stained glass window – Full of light
and colours.
A mountain climb – Life consists of hierarchies.
We are always climbing the various ladders of life.
A race – Always finding the fastest
route, "keeping up with the Joneses".
A courtroom – Everything in life should
be fair.
Stepping stones – We barely get comfortable
where we are before we are looking for a better job or a bigger house.
A prison – Feeling like we do not have
choices, like others have all the power.
A classroom – There are always new lessons
to learn.
A battery – Every encounter seems to
drain energy. We need the weekends to recharge (Source: Mental
Health Network).
What is the biological basis for our behaviour?
How is it that human beings have dreams, make plans, feel joy or hunger, fall in love, read and understand this page, or remember events that took place ages ago? This question is about the relationship between biology, brain, and behaviour and the answer is at once most simple and most complex. The simple answer is this. All of our thoughts, feelings and behaviours originate from basic biological processes – more specfically from the brain (Baron et al., 1998, p. 42).
What are the various systems of support that influence our behaviour?
In his Ecological Model, Urie Bronfenbrenner (1979) described three levels of influence that affect an individual through various processes. According to Bronfenbrenner, each person is significantly affected by interactions among a number of overlapping ecosystems. At the center of the model is the individual. Microsystems are the systems that intimately and immediately shape human development. Interactions among the microsystems, as when parents and teachers coordinate their efforts to educate the child, take place through the mesosystem. Surrounding the microsystems is the exosystem, which includes all the external networks, such as community structures and local educational, medical, employment, and communications systems, that influence the microsystems. Influencing all other systems is the macrosystem, which includes cultural values, political philosophies, economic patterns, and social conditions. Together, these systems are termed the social context of human development (Bronfenbrenner, 1977, as quoted in Berger, 2000, p. 7).
In what ways does heredity, experience and/or the systems of support influence how we think, feel and behave?
Psychologists and biologists have long debated whether interaction with the environment—a person’s family and culture, for instance—is more important than genes in shaping disease, character, and behaviour. It is becoming more obvious that environment and genes have different degrees of influence, depending on the trait. Some traits such as eye colour appear to depend on only a genetic component with little or no environmental input. However, others such as muscle strength or musical achievement seem to require contributions from both genes and the environment. If a person is born with the alleles for great athletic or musical potential, for example, those talents will not develop without practice. A child may be born with the alleles for potentially high academic intelligence, but lack of stimulation and limited exposure to new experiences in early childhood may keep the child from realizing that potential. Lack of nutrition during childhood can turn a person with the potential to be six feet tall into someone who barely clears five feet. Current research indicates that expression of alleles in certain individuals may also depend on their unique internal environment – their nervous system, hormone balance, or other aspects of their biochemistry (Berger, 2000, p. 82).
How does gender influence our thoughts, feelings and behaviours?
Gender identity is our classification of ourselves (and others) as male or female, boy or girl, and so on. Gender role refers to the behaviours, attitudes, beliefs and so on which a particular society either expects from, or considers appropriate to, males and females on the basis of their biological sex. To be masculine or feminine, therefore, requires males and females to conform to their respective gender roles (Gross and McIlveen, 1998, p. 393).
What are the contemporary perspectives that try to explain human social behaviour?
The six major theoretical perspectives include:
Psychodynamic Perspective: Advocates of the psychodynamic perspective believe that behaviour is motivated by inner forces, memories and conflicts that are generally beyond people’s awareness and control.
· Freud’s psychoanalytic theory suggests that unconscious forces act to determine personality and behaviour. To Freud, the unconscious is a part of the personality about which a person is unaware. It contains infantile wishes, desires, demands and needs that are hidden, because of their disturbing nature, from conscious awareness. Freud suggested that the unconscious is responsible for a good part of our everyday behaviour. According to Freud, one’s personality has three aspects: the id, the ego and the superego.
The id is the raw, unorganized, inborn part of personality that is present at birth. It represents primitive drives related to hunger, sex, aggression and irrational impulses. The id operates according to the "pleasure principle", in which the goal is to maximize satisfaction and reduce tension.
The ego is the part of the personality that is rational and reasonable. Providing a reality check for the demands of the id, the ego acts as a buffer between the outside world and the primitive id. The ego operates on the "reality principle", in which instincts are restrained in order to maintain the safety of the individual and help integrate the individual into society.
Finally, Freud proposed that the superego represents a person’s conscience, incorporating distinctions between right and wrong. It develops around age five or six and is learned from an individual’s parents, teachers and other significant figures (Feldman, 2000, p. 15).
· Erikson’s psychosocial theory suggests that developmental change occurs throughout our lives in eight distinct stages. The stages emerge in a fixed pattern and are similar for all people. Erikson argues that each stage presents a crisis or conflict that the individual must resolve. Although no crisis is ever fully resolved, making life increasingly complicated, the individual must at least address the crisis of each stage sufficiently to deal with demands made during the next stage of development (Feldman, 2000, p. 17).
· Carl Jung was originally one of Freud’s closest friends, but by 1914 he had left Freud’s inner circle. In addition to the individual’s own unconscious, said Jung (1969), there is a collective unconscious shared by all human beings, containing universal memories, symbols and images that are the legacy of human history. In his studies of myths, art and folklore in cultures all over the world, Jung identified a number of these common themes, which he called archetypes. Psychologists have found that some basic archetypes such as the Hero, the Nurturing Mother, the Powerful Father, the Wicked Witch and the Earth Mother do appear in the stories and images of virtually every society. Two of the most important archetypes, in Jung’s view, are those of Men and Women themselves. Jung recognized that "masculine" and "feminine" qualities exist in both sexes. Problems can arise, however, if a person tries to repress his or her internal, opposite archetype – that is, if a man totally denies his softer "feminine" side or if a woman denies her "masculine" aspects. People also create problems in relationships when they expect the partner to behave like the ideal archetypal man or woman, instead of a real human being who has both sides (Tavris and Wade, 2000, p. 481).
The Behavioural Perspective: The behavioural perspective suggests that the keys to understanding development are observable behaviour and outside stimuli in the environment. If we know the stimuli we can predict the behaviour. Behavioural theories reject the notion that individuals universally pass through a series of stages. Instead, people are assumed to be affected by the environmental stimuli to which they happen to be exposed. Developmental patterns, then, are personal, reflecting a particular set of environmental stimuli, and development is the result of continuing exposure to specific factors in the environment (Feldman, 2000, p. 18).
· John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner’s theories of classical and operant conditioning hold that all behaviour is learned as a response to external stimuli. Classical conditioning occurs when an organism learns to respond in a particular way to a neutral stimulus that normally does not evoke that type of response. For example, Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov found that if a dog is repeatedly exposed to the pairing of two stimuli, such as the sound of a bell and the presentation of meat, it may learn to react to the sound of the bell alone in the same way it reacts to the presentation of meat. In operant conditioning, Skinner demonstrated that individuals learn to act deliberately on their environments in order to bring about desired consequences. In a sense, then, people operate on their environment in order to bring about a desired state of affairs. Reinforcement is the process by which a stimulus is provided that increases the probability that a preceding behaviour will be repeated. In addition, punishment will decrease the probability that the preceding behaviour will occur in the future (Feldman, 2000, p. 18).
· According to social-cognitive learning theorist Albert Bandura, when we see the behaviour of a model being rewarded, we are likely to imitate that behaviour. Behaviour is learned through observation and imitation, not conditioning through reinforcement or punishment (Feldman, 2000, p. 18).
The Cognitive Perspective: The cognitive perspective focuses on the processes that allow people to know, understand and think about the world. The cognitive perspective emphasizes how people internally represent and think about the world. By using this perspective, developmental psychologists hope to understand how children and adults process information, and how their ways of thinking and understanding affect their behaviour (Feldman, 2000, p. 20).
· No single person has had a greater impact on the study of cognitive development than Jean Piaget who proposed that all people pass in a fixed sequence through a series of universal stages of cognitive development. In each stage, he suggested that not only did the quantity of information increase, but so did the quality of knowledge and understanding. Piaget suggests that the growth in children’s understanding of the world can be explained by two basic principles. Assimilation is the process in which people understand an experience in terms of their current state of cognitive development and way of thinking. In contrast, accommodation refers to changes in existing ways of thinking in response to encounters with new stimuli or events (Feldman, 2000, p. 20).
· Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory proposes that a full understanding of development is impossible without taking into account the culture in which children develop. Sociocultural theory proposes that children’s understanding of the world is acquired through their problem-solving interactions with adults and other children. As children play and cooperate with others, they learn what is important in their society, and at the same time, advance cognitively in their understanding of the world (Feldman, 2000, p. 21).
The Humanistic Perspective: The humanistic perspective contends that people have a natural tendency to make decisions about their lives and control their behaviour. The humanistic perspective emphasizes free will, the ability of humans to make choices and come to decisions about their lives (Feldman, 2000, p. 22).
· Carl Rogers suggested that all people have a need for positive regard that results from an underlying wish to be loved and respected. Because it is other people who provide this positive regard, we become dependent on them. Consequently, our view of ourselves and our self-worth is a reflection of how we think others view us (Feldman, 2000, p. 22).
· Abraham Maslow suggests that self-actualization is a primary goal in life. Self-actualization is a state of self-fulfillment in which people achieve their highest potential in their own unique way (Feldman, 2000, p. 22).
The Evolutionary Perspective: According to evolutionary theories, behaviour is strongly influenced by biology, is tied to evolution, and is characterized by critical or sensitive periods. Evolutionary approaches grow out of the groundbreaking work of Charles Darwin (Feldman, 2000, p. 22).
· Konrad Lorenz discovered that newborn geese are genetically preprogrammed to become attached to the first moving object they see after birth. His work, which demonstrated the importance of biological determinants in influencing behaviour patterns, ultimately led developmentalists to consider the ways in which human behaviour might reflect inborn genetic patterns (Feldman, 2000, p. 23).
· The evolutionary perspective encompasses one of the fastest growing areas within the field of lifespan development, behavioural genetics. Behavioural genetics studies the effects of heredity and genetics on behaviour. As technology improves, and researchers continue to map the human genome, there is an increasing understanding of the role and function of the genetic codes and their influence on development (Feldman, 2000, p. 23).
The Sociocultural Perspective: The Ecological model, the major proponent of which is Urie Bronfenbrenner, seeks to explain individual knowledge, development, and competencies in terms of the guidance, support, and structure provided by society and to explain social change over time in terms of the cumulative effect of individual choices (Berger, 2000, p. 8).
· According to Urie Bronfenbrenner, each person is significantly affected by interactions among a number of overlapping ecosystems. At the center of the model is the individual. Microsystems are the systems that intimately and immediately shape human development. The primary microsystems for children include the family, peer group, classroom, neighbourhood, and sometimes a church, temple, or mosque as well. Surrounding the microsystems is the exosystem, which includes all the external networks, such as community structures and local educational, medical, employment, and communications systems, that influence the microsystems. And influencing all other systems is the macrosystem, which includes cultural values, political philosophies, economic patterns, and social conditions. Together, these systems are termed the social context of human development (Bronfenbrenner, 1977, quoted in Berger, 2000, p. 7).
What is an Aboriginal perspective on social psychology?
In addition to the sacred teachings concerning the nature of things, the teachings of the Sacred Tree include a code of ethics to which all should conform their lives if they wish to find happiness and well-being. This code describes what wisdom means in the relationship between individuals, in family life, and in the life of the community. These are the sparkling gems of experience practised by Native peoples everywhere:
○ Treat every person, from the tiniest child
to the oldest elder with respect at all times.
○ Special respect should be given
to elders, parents, teachers, and community members.
○ No person should be made to feel
"put down" by you; avoid hurting other hearts as you would avoid a
deadly poison.
○ Touch nothing that belongs to someone
else without permission, or an understanding between you.
○ Respect the privacy of every person.
Never intrude on a person’s quiet moments or personal space.
○ Never walk between people that are
conversing.
○ Never interrupt people that are
conversing.
○ Speak in a soft voice, especially
when you are in the presence of elders, strangers, or others to whom special
respect is due.
○ Do not speak unless invited to do
so at gatherings where elders are present.
○ Never speak about others in a negative
way, whether they are present or not.
○ Treat the earth and all of her aspects
as your mother. Show deep respect for the mineral world, the plant world, and
the animal world.
○ Do nothing to pollute the air or
the soil. If others would destroy our mother, rise up with wisdom to defend
her.
○ Show deep respect for the beliefs
and religions of others.
○ Listen with courtesy to what others
say, even if you feel that what they are saying is worthless.
○ Listen with your heart.
How do we make sense of our behaviour?
Science is fundamentally a rational process. In its simplest form, the rational model consists of four steps: (1) formulating a theoretical problem, which is then translated into testable hypotheses; (2) selecting the appropriate research method, and designing and carrying out the study; (3) analyzing and interpreting the results; and (4) using the results to confirm, deny or modify the theory (Alcock et al., 1998, p. 17).
What are the methods of research in social psychology?
· Experimental methods: Came into being because of the need to draw causal inferences about how variables influence one another. Using the experimental method, the researcher deliberately assigns subjects randomly to two or more groups and applies an independent variable to one group and not the other. Then the researcher measures the effect of the treatment by comparing the two groups (Alcock et al., 1998, p. 23).
· Interview: Typically, a face-to-face meeting in which a researcher (interviewer) asks an individual a series of questions. The interviewer usually tape records or writes down the participant’s responses (Lefton et al., 2000, p. 14).
· Observation: Involves direct observation of the spontaneous behaviour of an individual, or group of people in a natural setting. The observer may remain aloof and simply observe, or become a participant-observer (Alcock et al., 1998, p. 19).
· Case Study: A case study is an intensive study of one individual. Typically, the case study is based on interviews with the subject regarding his or her background, present thinking or actions; it may also utilize interviews of others who know the individual. Additional case-study material may be obtained through observation, experiments and standardized tests, such as personality inventories and intelligence tests. Case studies can provide a wealth of detail, which makes them rich in possible insights. Many developmentalists prefer case studies precisely for that reason: the complexity of a human life is easier to understand through the rich qualitative, or descriptive, information of a case study than through a study involving sheer numbers, even though statistical significance depends on such quantitative, or numerical data. The interpretation of case-study information reflects the biases as well as the wisdom of the researcher; and, even when a case-study is carefully interpreted, the conclusions apply with certainty to only one person. Nevertheless, the case-study has three important uses: to provide a provocative starting point for other research; to understand a particular individual very well; and to illustrate general truths. Remember, that no confident conclusions about people in general can be drawn from a sample size of one, or even 10 or 20, no matter how deep and detailed the study is (Berger, 2000, p. 28).
· Topical: A topical research study involves the acquisition, synthesis, organization and presentation of information. Typically, the topical research study will involve both paper-based as well as web-based resources. Additional information may be gained through the other research methods and strategies.
· Survey: Involves going out and asking, or sending out, questions about the phenomenon of interest. The survey method is especially useful for collecting data from a large number or people and is often the only way of obtaining data about thoughts, feelings, and private behaviour not open to direct observation. Survey methods do not provide cause-effect relationship data, and can be unreliable because of poorly constructed questions, interviewer bias, inaccurate reporting from respondents, and a poorly defined sample (Alcock et al., 1998, p. 21).
What are the methodological issues in research?
Reliability: Reliability refers to the extent to which the research yields the same results each time they are applied to the same issue (Baron et al., 1998, p. 459). For instance, if we were conducting an observational study of the play behaviours of children during recess, and our findings at the end of one study indicated that the boys were more aggressive than girls, but when we repeated our study at a different school and we found the opposite, that the girls were more aggressive than the boys, then we could not claim that our study was reliable.
Validity: Validy refers to the extent to which a research methodology measures what it is supposed to measure (Baron et al., 1998, p. 460). Continuing with our example of the play behaviours of young children, is the observational approach a valid means of studying the topic? Let’s say that we had chosen to do an interview, and we interviewed the children and asked them questions about what happened at recess time. Would this method be considered valid as a way to gain information from which we could draw a conclusion? Probably not, or not as valid as directly observing them.
What are some of the ethical issues in research?
Confidentiality is the right of privacy for subjects concerning their participation in research. All steps must be taken to assure that subjects’ participation is confidential. If any possibility exists that someone other than the researcher may have access to the data, the subject must be informed of this possibility before they provide their informed consent to participate (Buskist et al., 2002, p. 42).
Informed Consent requires that potential subjects understand exactly what is expected of them during the course of the research and that the investigator protects participants from physical and psychological discomfort, harm and danger (Buskist et al., 2002, p. 42).
Debriefing requires that research participants be given full information about all aspects of the study after they have participated in it, thus assuring that they leave with a full understanding of its purpose, and receive a full disclosure of the information gathered (Baron et al., 1998, p. 31).
Researchers must be careful to avoid subtle biases that influence results, such as gender (male or female), ethnicity (people’s common traits, background, and allegiances which are often cultural, religious, or language based), and cultural (a person’s racial and ethnic background, religious and social values, artistic and musical tastes, and scholarly interests) bias (Lefton et al., 2000, p. 15).
How do I make research more valid and reliable?
Scientific investigation includes the possibility that researchers’ procedures and/or biases may compromise the validity of their findings. Researchers can, however, use a number of techniques to increase the validity of their research:
· Sample size: To make statements about people in general, scientists study groups of individuals chosen from populations. Each such group, called a sample, must be large enough to ensure that a few extreme cases within the sample do not distort the picture it gives of the population.
· Representative sample: Data collected from one group of individuals may not be valid for other people who are different in significant ways, such as in gender or ethnic background. Thus it is important that every sample be a representative sample, that is, consist of people who are typical of the general population the researchers wish to learn about.
· "Blind experimenters": When experimenters have specific expectations about their research findings, those expectations can affect the research results. As much as possible, therefore, the people who actually gather the data should be "blind", that is, unaware of the purpose of the research.
· Operational definitions: When planning a study, researchers must establish operational definitions of whatever phenomena they will be examining. That is, they must define each variable in terms of specific, observable behaviour that can be measured with precision.
· Experimental and control groups: To test a hypothesis accurately in an experiment, researchers must gather data on two samples that are similar in every important way except one. They must compare an experimental group. Which receives some special experimental treatment, and a control group, which does not receive the experimental treatment.
· Statistical significance: Whenever researchers find a difference between two groups, they have to consider the possibility that the differences occurred purely by chance. Determining the statistical significance is a mathematical measure of the likelihood that a particular research result occurred by chance (Berger, 2000, p. 23).
| Type of Research |
Suggested Research Topics |
| Survey Conducting research using a survey involves going out and asking questions about the phenomenon of interest. |
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| Naturalistic Observation In naturalistic research, the observer does not intervene at all. For all intents and purposes, the researcher is invisible and works hard to not interrupt the natural dynamics of the situation being investigated. |
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| Case Study A case study is an intensive study of one individual. Typically, the case study is based on interviews with the subject regarding his or her background, present thinking or actions; it may also utilize interviews of others who know the individual. Additional case-study material may be obtained through observation, experiments and standardized tests, such as personality inventories and intelligence tests. |
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| Interview The interview method of research, typically, involves a face-to-face meeting in which a researcher (interviewer) asks an individual a series of questions. |
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| Experimental research Experimental researchers take care to create an environment in which they can make causal statements. They manipulate variables, randomly assign participants to various conditions, and seek to control other influences that could affect their research. |
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| Topical research A topical research study involves the acquisition, synthesis, organization and presentation of information. Typically, the topical research study will involve both paper-based as well as web-based resources. Additional information may be gained through the other research methods and strategies. |
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