Unit Seven: Adulthood

Concept Web

Looking through the eyes of the developing person …

Looking through the eyes of the systems of support …

The period of the lifespan known as adulthood encompasses more of human life than any other period in our development. As adolescents make the transition to adulthood, usually beginning around age 18, they enter a life phase that will, ultimately, define their life. This unit considers the physical, cognitive and socioemotional changes of adulthood.

Learning Objectives

Knowledge

To understand how the thoughts, feelings and behaviours of people are influenced by the actual, imagined or implied presence of others.
To understand physical changes throughout adulthood.
To understand cognitive changes throughout adulthood.
To understand socioemotional changes throughout adulthood.

Skills

To organize and integrate new knowledge and understandings by making connections with existing knowledge and understandings.
To organize and integrate new knowledge and understandings within the discipline of psychology.
To organize and integrate new knowledge and understandings with other disciplines.
To apply those concepts and understandings in a variety of practical, pertinent and contemporary issues.

Values

To appreciate the complex, dynamic, reciprocal and personal aspects of human social cognition, influence and interaction.

Lessons and Lesson Objectives

7.1 Unit Overview: Developmental changes during adulthood

What roles do nature and nurture play in the development of an adult?
What are the sociocultural influences on human development?

7.2 Looking through the eyes of an adult, what do you see?

What is the process of physical development during adulthood?
What is the process of cognitive development during adulthood?
What is the process of emotional development during adulthood?
How do adults deal with change in their lives?

7.2.1 Lifestyle Choices

What role does proper nutrition play in our overall development?
How important is regular exercise to our physical, mental and emotional health?
How do we define substance abuse and addiction?
What are the defining characteristics of a substance abuser?
Are some people more likely than others to become alcoholics?
Why do people become addicted?
What are some risks for prolonged alcohol abuse?
How prevalent is the problem of alcohol abuse in Canada?
Why do people smoke?
What happens, physically, when people smoke?

7.2.2 Stress and Resiliency
What is stress?
How does stress develop?
What can we do to minimize the effects of stress?
What are some successful ways of dealing with stress?
What are the factors that increase the risk of illness from stress?
What is resiliency?
How do you promote resiliency?

7.2.3 Aging

What is the life expectancy for North Americans?
When does old age start?
What are the causes of aging?
What are some policy issues around aging?
What is ageism, and what influence does it have on adult behaviours?
In general, how do adults feel about aging?
What are the cross-cultural attitudes towards aging?

7.2.4 Death and Dying

When are we dead?
How do attitudes towards death change across the lifespan?
What are the cultural influences on our perceptions of death and dying?
What are the stages of death and dying?

7.3 Socioemotional changes

What is the process of socioemotional development in adulthood?
Are adults prisoners of childhood?
How do the two basic theories of adult development compare?

7.3.1 Attraction and Intimacy

Why are we attracted to people?
What is intimacy in a relationship?
How can we describe an intimate relationship?
What are the different styles of intimate interaction?
What is the relationship between gender and intimacy?
What influence does culture have on intimacy?

7.3.2 Love

What does it mean, to love?
What are the different types of love?
How is liking someone different than loving someone?
What influence does culture have on our notions of love?

7.3.3 Relationships

How do we define interpersonal relationships?
Why do we establish interpersonal relationships?
How do we establish and maintain relationships?
Why do people remain in unsatisfying relationships?
What influence does culture have on interpersonal relationships?

7.3.4 Marriage and Divorce

What makes a good marriage?
What is the process of being married?
What are the trends in marriage?
What are the causes of divorce?
What are the effects of divorce on adults?

7.3.5 Personality Development

What does it mean to have a personality?
How do personalities develop?
Are personalities fixed for life, or do they change?
Is there a biological basis for personality?
What is the relationship between personality, lifestyle and health?
What kind of personality do you have?

7.3.6 Senior Citizens

Who are senior citizens?
How much income do seniors have?
What economic impact do seniors have on the Canadian economy?
Where do seniors live in Canada?
What are some issues that seniors face?

7.3.7 Careers/Work/Leisure

How do the three models of career selection and development compare?
What are the issues and challenges for dual-earner marriages?
How has the role of women in the workforce changed over the past few decades?
How do the work pathways of men and women compare?
What is the role and importance of leisure activities?

7.3.8 Gender Issues

What are the issues in establishing gender roles in adulthood?
How do the adult stages of males and females compare in adulthood?
What are the gender differences in terms of intimacy in marriage?
How does gender affect lifespan and life expectancy?

7.3.9 Retirement

What are the different phases experienced during retirement?
Should there be a mandatory retirement age?
What are the issues and challenges facing seniors considering retirement?

7.4 Looking through the eyes of the systems of support, what do you see?

How does the sociocultural environment influence adult development?

7.5 Action research in adult development

What does it take to stay young in today’s society?
At what age are you old?
Should retirement be mandatory at a certain age? If so, at what age?
How would you describe or define intimacy?
What is beauty?
What is love?
Moral dilemmas:

Is it right to steal life-saving medicines that could save the life of a family member?
Is it right to tell the police if you know that a friend has committed a crime?
If you found a large sum of money in an unmarked envelope, should you keep it?

What leisure activities do you engage in?
How did you develop your parenting skills and styles?
What are the differences between adult males and females?
What are adult’s television programming preferences?
How do adults cope with stressful situations?
How are senior citizens defined and described?
How are senior citizens represented in the media?
What does it take to stay young in today’s society?
What are the issues for seniors regarding ageism and abuse?
What is it like to be an adult?
What are your perspectives on spirituality and religion?
What stereotypes do you face in society?
What are the issues and challenges you face as an adult?
What are the stressors in your life?
What resiliency or coping skills have your parents developed?
What was it like to be 18 when your grandparents were young?
Why did you choose your career?
What are the issues and challenges seniors face in retirement?
How do viral infections and exchanging bodily fluids threaten our health?

7.6 Lifespan approach to adult development

How is adult development described from the perspective of the lifespan approach?
How do the key issues and questions in developmental psychology relate to adult development?
How would each of the six theoretical perspectives on human development explain adult development?

Resources and Resource-Based Learning

Resource-based learning is an integral part of all units. The accompanying bibliography will assist you in incorporating a variety of resources from different media into each unit. This annotated bibliography should be available from your teacher librarian. It is available from Saskatchewan Learning through the website at www.sasked.gov.sk.ca/ or from the Learning Resources Distribution Centre at 306-787-5987. The bibliography contains annotations of current, useful resources including print, video, Internet sites, and other media selections. Teachers are encouraged to assess their current resource collection, identify those resources that are still useful, and acquire small quantities of each new title, rather than class sets, in order to provide students with a broad range of perspectives and information.

The following list of evaluated resource titles provides a starting point for developing a resource collection that is current and relevant, and that addresses students' various learning styles and abilities. Please refer to the bibliography for a complete list of resources giving the full citation, annotation, and ordering information. Please note that many of these resources can be ordered through the Learning Resources Distribution Centre (http://lrdc.sasked.gov.sk.ca/). Videos may be available from Media Group (http://www.sasked.gov.sk.ca/video). At the time of publication all of the resources listed here and in the bibliography were in print and available.

Please note that LRDC will be closing effective March 31, 2003. If you need assistance acquiring Saskatchewan Learning materials after that date, please contact 787-5987.

Print Resources

Adolescence, Adulthood and Old Age

Breaking Free from Partner Abuse: Voices of Battered Women Caught in the Cycle of Domestic Violence

Canadian Families: Diversity, Conflict & Change

Chasing Lightning: Gambling in Canada

Internet Sites

The following sites provide a brief overview of what is available. These sites were checked for availability in March 2002. To access sites that have been formally evaluated and linked to the curriculum visit the Evergreen Curriculum at the Saskatchewan Learning website - http://www.sasked.gov.sk.ca/docs/evergrn.html.

Adoption - http://adoption.about.com/parenting/adoption/library/writers/blprose.htm

Psychology and Aging - http://www.apa.org/journals/pag.html

7.1 Unit Overview: Developmental changes during adulthood

In this overview lesson, we examine the biological, cognitive and socioemotional aspects of the developmental process during adulthood.

Looking through the eyes of the developing person ...

Looking through the eyes of the systems of support ...

Lesson Objectives

What roles do nature and nurture play in the development of an adult?

What are the sociocultural influences on adult development?

Suggested Instructional Strategies

Direct

Independent

Interactive

Indirect

Experiential

Discussion: Nature/nurture and adulthood

Using the template found in the Curriculum Support Materials, discuss the relative influences of our biological inheritance and the environment on adult development.

In what ways are we, as adults, products of our biological inheritance?

How does the environment influence adult development?

In what ways are these influences, both biological and environmental, unique to adulthood?

Discussion: Ecological model and adulthood

Using the Ecological model as a conceptual organizer, discuss the influence that each of the systems has on adult development.

Adult development occurs against the backdrop of what many developmental psychologists consider to be the two most important aspects of life: love and work (Carlson, Buskist, Enzle and Heth, 2002, p. 409).

Discussion: Old age

Using the poem “When I Am Old, I Shall Wear Purple” found in the Curriculum Support Materials, discuss the roles and rights of, as well as the stereotypical attitudes towards, seniors and Elders.

Making Connections

When does an adolescent become an adult?

What are the rites of passage that we use as social markers to highlight the transition from adolescence to adulthood?

Should we change the age at which adolescents can vote, drive, consume alcohol, get married?

Resources

Curriculum Support Materials: Nature/Nurture and Human Development

Curriculum Support Materials: The Ecological Model

Curriculum Support Materials: When I Am Old, I Shall Wear Purple

Lesson 7.1: Teacher Information

What roles do nature and nurture play in the development of an adult?

Adult development is much more variable because physical changes in adults are more gradual. Mental and emotional changes during adulthood are more closely related to individual experience than to age. Some people achieve success and satisfaction with their careers, while some hate their jobs. Some marry and have happy family lives, while others never adjust to the roles of spouse and parent. No single description of adulthood will fit everyone (Buskist et al., 1997, p. 406).

What are the sociocultural influences on adult development?

At the microsystem level, discuss with the students the relative influences of grandparents, peers and the workplace. In what ways do these aspects of the system of support influence our physical, emotional, cognitive and spiritual development? Of grandparents, peers and the workplace, does any one dominate during adulthood?

At the exosystem level, discuss the relative influences of the school, the mass media (refer to topic 6.5.7 for more information) and the community. What workplace policies promote healthy development? How has changing technology influenced adult development? What community resources are available to promote healthy adult development?

At the macrosystem level, discuss the influence that culture has on adult development. Is there such a thing as an “adult culture”? If so, how would you describe an adult culture? Has that culture changed? Why or why not? In terms of the influence that economics has on adult development, discuss topics such as the cost of housing, food, general living expenses, parenting and raising children, transportation, entertainment and so on. How has the rising cost of living affected adults and their ability to manage their lives and those of the people they support?

7.2 Looking through the eyes of the adult

This overview lesson addresses the physical, cognitive, mental and spiritual aspects of adulthood from late adolescence until the senior years.

Looking through the eyes of the developing person ...

Looking through the eyes of the systems of support ...

Lesson Objectives	What is the process of physical development during adulthood? What is the process of cognitive development during adulthood? What is the process of emotional development during adulthood? How do adults deal with change in their lives?
Suggested Instructional Strategies Direct Independent Interactive Indirect Experiential	Discussion: The Medicine Wheel Using the template supplied in the Curriculum Support Materials, discuss with the students the developmental changes, issues and challenges for each of the four aspects of our being. Discussion: Aging and growing old What does it mean to be old? How long would you like to live? Why? Genetic engineering and medicine: What might be the effects of a generation that would not die? Discussion: Multiple intelligences and adulthood Refer to the information provided in the Teacher Information section (Cognitive abilities) regarding the multiple intelligence theories of Goleman, Sternberg and Gardner. Multiple intelligences and career choices: What are the implications of choosing a career path that fits your preferential intelligence(s)? Discussion: The change process Using the template found in the Curriculum Support Materials sections, The Process of Change, discuss the change process as a problem-solving method for life issues in adulthood. Research: Elders, seniors and spirituality What roles do seniors and Elders play in the spiritual life of your community? Interview a senior or an Elder for his or her perspectives on religion and spirituality. How do his or her views compare to those of younger adults? Adolescents? Research: What is it like to be an adult? Interview an adult in your home or community. Brainstorm interview questions that highlight the benefits, drawbacks, issues, challenges and stressors to adult life. Compare and contrast with the issues of adulthood addressed in this unit: attraction, relationships, marriage, divorce, parenting, careers, etc.
Making Connections	Research: Case Study The scientists who mapped the human genome: Francis Collins and J. Craig Venter. Genetic engineering in agriculture: Humankind's hope for the future? What are the benefits and possible issues in biotechnology directed at agriculture? From the biotechnologist's perspective an excellent resource is the Biotechnology Council's website listed below
Resources	Curriculum Support Materials: The Medicine Wheel Curriculum Support Materials: The Process of Change

Lesson 7.2: Teacher Information

What is the process of physical development during adulthood?

In early adulthood physical growth continues. Shoulder width, height and chest size increase, and people continue to develop their athletic abilities. By their mid-thirties, nearly everyone shows some hearing impairment, but for most people, the years of early adulthood are the prime of life.

In middle adulthood, other physical changes slowly emerge. The most common of these involve the further loss of sensory sharpness. People become less sensitive to light, less accurate at perceiving differences in the distance, and slower and less acute at seeing details. At about age forty, increased farsightedness is common, and glasses may be necessary to correct it.

Most people are well into late adulthood before their bodily functions show noticeable impairment. However, inside the body, bone mass is dwindling, the risk of heart disease is increasing, and fertility is declining. In their late forties or early fifties, women generally experience menopause, the shutdown of reproductive capability. Estrogen and progesterone levels drop, and the menstrual cycle eventually ceases. Men shrink about two centimetres in height, and women about five centimetres, as their posture changes and cartilage disks between the spinal vertebrae become thinner. Hardening of the arteries and a buildup of fat deposits on the artery walls may lead to heart disease. The digestive system slows down and becomes less efficient. In addition, the brain shrinks and the flow of blood to the brain diminishes during late adulthood (Bernstein and Nash, 1999, p. 366).

What is the process of cognitive development during adulthood?

Despite the aging of the brain, cognition undergoes little change for the worse until late adulthood. Before that time, alert older people can think just as quickly as alert younger people. In fact, older adults may function as well or as better than younger adults in situations that tap their memories and learning skills. Their years of accumulating and organizing information can make older adults practiced, skillful and wise.

Until age sixty at least, important cognitive abilities improve. The nature of thought may also change during adulthood. Adult thought is often more complex and adaptive than adolescent thought. Middle-aged adults are more expert than adolescents or young adults at making rational decisions and at relating logic and abstractions to actions, emotions, social issues, and personal relationships.

It is not until late in adulthood that, after the age of sixty-five or so, that some intellectual abilities decline in some people. Older adults do just as well as younger ones at tasks they know well, however, when asked to perform an unfamiliar task or to solve a complex problem they have not seen before, older adults are generally slower and less effective than younger ones (Bernstein and Nash, 1999, p. 366).

What is the process of emotional development during adulthood?

Adulthood is a time when changes occur in social relationships and positions. These changes do not come in neat, predictable stages but, instead, follow various paths depending on individual experiences. Changes can include being abandoned by a spouse, getting fired from a job, going back to school, remarrying or suffering the death of a spouse.

Men and women in Western cultures usually enter the adult world in their early twenties. They decide on an occupation, or at least take a job, and often become preoccupied with their careers. They also become more preoccupied with the issues of love. During young adulthood, the experience of becoming parents represents entry into a major new developmental phase accompanied by personal, social, and, often, occupational changes.

Sometime around age forty, people go through a mid-life transition. They may reappraise and modify their lives and relationships. Happiness and healthiness of people in mid-life depend on how much control they feel they have over their job, finances, marriage, children, and sex life; the level of education they have attained; and the type of work they are doing.

Most people between sixty-five and seventy-five years of age think of themselves as middle-aged, not old. They are active and influential politically and socially; they often are physically vigorous. Men and women who have been working usually retire from their jobs during this period. Ratings of life-satisfaction and self-esteem are, on average, as high in old age as during any other period in adulthood. During late adulthood, people generally become more inward-looking, cautious and conforming. Although they interact with others less frequently, older adults enjoy these interactions more, finding relationships more satisfying, supportive, and fulfilling than earlier in life (Bernstein and Nash, 1999, p. 367).

How do adults deal with change in their lives?

Researchers have looked at how and why people change either on their own or with help. Prochaska, Norcross, and DiClemente (1992) have proposed a wheel concept that illustrates the six stages of change:

Precontemplation: At this point a person is not even thinking that there is a problem or that there is a need to make a change. A person requires information and feedback to raise their awareness that they can make changes. This is the entry point into change.
Contemplation: At this point the person swings between considering a change and rejecting it repeatedly.
Determination or preparation: The person determines that they have to do something about the problem and questions what they can do and explores options.
Action: A person engages in actions in order to bring a change.
Maintenance: A person continues previous action and perhaps tries new skills.
Relapse: There is a return to old behaviour and the task is to get on the wheel again (Prochaska et al., 1992, p. 1105).

7.2.1 Lifestyle choices

Lifestyle choices include decisions regarding nutrition, exercise and using substances such as tobacco and alcohol. Taken together, lifestyle choices have a profound influence on our healthy development as adults.

Looking through the eyes of the developing person ...

Looking through the eyes of the systems of support ...

Lesson Objectives	What role does proper nutrition play in our overall development? How important is regular exercise to our physical, mental and emotional health? How do we define substance abuse and addiction? What are the defining characteristics of a substance abuser? Are some people more likely than others to become alcoholics? Why do people become addicted? What are some risks of prolonged alcohol abuse? How prevalent is the problem of alcohol abuse in Canada? Why do people smoke? What happens, physically, when smokers quit?
Suggested Instructional Strategies Direct Independent Interactive Indirect Experiential	Activity: Viral infections/exchanging body fluids Refer to Topic 7.7 Action research in developmental psychology for the procedure on the experiment Viral infections/exchanging body fluids. Once the students think they have an idea who the original diseased individual was, the teacher then takes the tester and tests the “C” glass. Only the one glass with sodium hydroxide will turn bright pink. The teacher and students can then discuss unprotected sexual contact, having many sexual partners in a very short time and being infected and not knowing until you have infected others. Research: Why do people smoke? Design and conduct a research study investigating the reasons why people smoke. Refer to Teacher Information for the categories of reasons that people give. How do the results of your research compare to what social psychologists have found? Are there gender differences in the results? Are there age differences in the results? Discussion: Life-events framework and lifestyle choices Using the template supplied in the Curriculum Support Materials, discuss with the students how lifestyle choices and physical health (mediating variable) influence adult development. Discussion: Physical fitness In 1961, President John F. Kennedy offered the following message: “We are underexercised as a nation. We look instead of play. We ride instead of walk. Our existence deprives us of the minimum of physical activity essential for healthy living” (Santrock, 1999, p. 391). Has the situation changed over the past 40 years for Canadians? What are we doing, or can we do, to improve our level of physical fitness?
Resources	Curriculum Support Materials: Life-Events Framework

Lesson 7.2.1: Teacher Information

What role does proper nutrition play in our overall development?

Discuss with the students the phenomena of fast food, microwave meals, nutritional supplements and so on. How have the eating styles and habits of adults changed over the past 50 years?

How important is regular exercise to our physical, mental and emotional health?

Every adult should engage in 30 minutes or more of moderate-intensive physical activity on most, preferably all, days of the week. Researchers have found that exercise benefits not only physical health, but mental health as well. In particular, exercise improves self-concept and reduces anxiety and depression (Santrock, 1999, p. 392).

How do we define substance abuse and addiction?

Substance abuse is a pattern of use that causes serious social, legal or interpersonal problems. Thus, people can become psychologically dependent on psychoactive drugs without becoming physically addicted to them. Addiction is the physical need for a substance (physiological substance dependence). Even when use of a drug does not create physical addiction, some people may overuse, or abuse, because the drug gives them temporary self-confidence, enjoyment or relief from tension (Bernstein and Nash, 1999, p. 467).

Why do people become addicted?

The biological model holds that addiction, whether to alcohol or any other drug, is due primarily to a person's biochemistry, metabolism and genetic predisposition. Genes could contribute to alcoholism by contributing to traits or temperaments that predispose a person to become alcoholic. Or they may affect biochemical processes in the brain that make some people more susceptible to alcohol or cause them to respond to it differently than others do. For example, genes may affect the functioning of key neurotransmitters, such as dopamine, which researchers think is somehow related to addiction and other disorders. Genes may also affect how much a person needs to drink before feeling any effect (Tavris and Wade, 2000, p. 600).

According to the learning model, drug addiction is not a disease but a “central activity of the individual’s way of life” that depends on learning and culture. To understand why people become addicted the learning model focuses on the behaviours surrounding the addiction. Four arguments support this view:

Addiction patterns vary according to cultural practices and the social environment. Alcoholism is much more likely to occur in societies that forbid children to drink but condone drunkenness in adults than in societies that teach children how to drink responsibly and moderately but condemn adult drunkenness. Within a particular country, addiction rates can rise or fall rapidly in response to cultural changes such as when people move from their own culture into another that has different drinking rules.
Policies of total abstinence tend to increase rates of addiction rather than reduce them.
Not all addicts have withdrawal symptoms when they stop taking a drug.
Addiction does not depend on properties of the drug alone, but also on the reason for taking it. Addicts use drugs to escape from the real world, but people living with chronic pain use some of the same drugs in order to function in the real world and they do not become addicted (Tavris and Wade, 2000, p. 601).

What are the defining characteristics of a substance abuser?

A substance abuser is a person who overuses and relies on drugs to deal with stress and anxiety. Most substance abusers turn to alcohol, tobacco and other readily available drugs such as cocaine and marijuana, but substance abuse is not confined to these drugs. A growing number of people are abusing legal drugs such as tranquilizers and diet pills, as well as illegal drugs such as amphetamines and heroin. A person is a substance abuser if all three of the following statements apply:

The person has used the abusive substance for at least a month.
The use has caused legal difficulties or social or vocational problems.
There is recurrent use in hazardous situations such as driving a car (Lefton et al., 2000, p. 138).

Are some people more likely than others to become alcoholics?

The answer is yes, according to researchers who study the biological aspects of alcoholism. Researchers assert that genetics, blood and brain chemistry, and specific brain structures predispose some people to alcoholism. Children of alcoholics are more likely to become alcoholics, even if they are raised by non-alcoholic adoptive parents. The correlations suggest that certain individuals' physiology predisposes them to alcoholism (Lefton et al., 2000, p. 141).

Under what conditions are people likely to become addicted?

Abuse and addiction reflect an interaction of physiology and psychology, person and culture. Problems with drugs are most likely to occur under these conditions:

When a person has a physiological vulnerability to a drug;
When a person believes he or she has no control over the drug;
When laws or customs encourage or teach people to take a drug in binges, and moderate use is neither encouraged nor taught;
When a person comes to rely on a drug as a way of coping with problems, suppressing anger or fear, or relieving pain;
When members of a person's peer group drink heavily or use other drugs excessively (Tavris and Wade, 2000, p. 604).

What are some risks of prolonged alcohol abuse?

About 10 percent of Americans - in excess of 25 million people - display alcohol dependence or abuse, a pattern of continuous or on-and-off drinking that may lead to addiction and almost always causes severe social, physical, and other problems. Males exceed females in this category by a ratio of six to one, although the problem is on the rise among women and among teenagers of both genders. Prolonged overuse of alcohol can result in life-threatening liver damage, reduced cognitive abilities, vitamin deficiencies that can lead to severe and irreversible memory loss, and a host of other physical ailments. Alcohol dependence or abuse, commonly referred to as alcoholism, has been implicated in half of all the traffic fatalities, homicides and suicides that happen each year. Alcoholism also figures prominently in rape and child abuse, as well as in elevated rates of hospitalization and absenteeism from work. It is estimated that 43 percent of U.S. adults have an alcoholic in their families. Children growing up in families in which one or both parents abuse alcohol are at an increased risk for developing a host of mental disorders, including substance abuse disorders (Bernstein and Nash, 1999, p. 467).

How prevalent is the problem of alcohol abuse in Canada?

Alcohol consumption in Canada has been declining in the past decade. According to the Canadian Centre on Substance Abuse, about 72 percent of urban Canadian adults report having used alcohol at some time; just over nine percent of those who drink report having problems related to alcohol and just under half a million Canadians are classified as alcoholics. The highest proportions of people reporting problems with alcohol are in the 15- to 24-year-old range (Lefton et al., 2000, p. 139).

Why do people smoke?

There are genetic, psychosocial and cognitive reasons:

Genetic: Some people may be genetically predisposed. Individual differences in the reaction to nicotine are taken as evidence that our genes play a role in determining which people will become smokers. Also, nicotine enhances the availability of certain neurotransmitter substances, such as dopamine. These neurotransmitters influence memory, attention, performance, pleasure, tension, anxiety, appetite and pain, and can be pleasurable for some people.
Psychosocial factors also play a role in establishing smoking behaviour, especially among young people. Adolescents may be more likely to smoke if their parents or other role models smoke, if they experience peer pressure to do so, or if their brothers or sisters do.
The cognitive factors include believing that smoking allows them to stay alert and handle stress, even though there is no clear evidence in support of those ideas. Smokers are more likely to believe self-exempting beliefs than non-smokers (Baron et al., 1998, p. 551)

What happens, physically, when smokers quit?

Within 20 minutes of smoking that last cigarette, the body begins a series of changes that continue for years. All benefits are lost by smoking just one cigarette a day, according to the cancer societies of the United States and Canada (Baron et al., 1998, p. 550).

Death is one of the two certainties in life, the other being taxes. This lesson considers the aging process from adolescence until death.

Lesson 7.2.3: Teacher Information

What is the life expectancy for North Americans?

In 1900, the average life expectancy was only 47 years of age; only three percent of the population lived past 65. Today, the average life expectancy is 75; 12 percent of the U.S. population is older than 65. As a much greater percentage of the population lives to an older age, the midpoint of life and what constitutes middle age or middle adulthood are getting harder to pin down. In only one century we have added 30 years to the average life expectancy (Santrock, 1999, p. 484).

When does old age start?

It is also important to distinguish between primary and secondary aging. Primary aging is the normal, inevitable change that occurs among human beings and is irreversible, progressive, and universal. Such aging happens despite good health; a consequence of such aging is that a person is more vulnerable to society's fast paced and sometimes stressful lifestyles. Secondary aging is aging due to external factors such as disease, environmental pollution, or smoking. Lack of good nutrition is a secondary aging factor that is a principal cause of poor health and aging among lower income Canadians (Lefton et al., 2000, p. 394).

What are the causes of aging and death?

Many different views about the causes of aging have been proposed, but most fall under one of three major headings: wear-and-tear theories, genetic theories and social theories:

Wear and tear theories suggest that we grow old because various organs of our bodies, or the cells of which they are composed, wear out. Indirect evidence for wear-and-tear theories of aging is provided by individuals who repeatedly expose their bodies to harmful conditions and substances - for example, alcohol, tobacco, various drugs or harsh environments. Such individuals often show premature signs of aging, presumably because they have overburdened their capacity for internal repair (Baron et al., 1998, p. 390).
Genetic theories of aging attribute physical aging primarily to genetic programming. Certain cells do indeed divide only a set number of times before dying. Moreover, no environmental conditions seem capable of altering this number (Baron et al., 1998, p. 391).
Social theories include external, or lifestyle, factors. There are several social theories of aging:

For too many years, it was believed that the best way to age was to be disengaged. Disengagement theory argues that as older adults slow down they gradually withdraw from society. Disengagement is a mutual activity in which the older adult not only disengages from society, but society disengages from the older adult.
According to activity theory, the more active and involved older adults are, the more likely they are to be satisfied with their lives. Activity theory suggests that individuals should continue their middle childhood roles through late adulthood.
A third social theory of aging is social breakdown-reconstruction theory. This theory argues that aging is promoted through negative psychological functioning brought about by negative societal views of older adults and inadequate provision of services for them. Social reconstruction can occur by changing society’s view of older adults and by providing adequate support systems for them (Santrock, 1999, p. 527).

What are some policy issues around aging?

Policy issues might include:

health (access to services, costs, private versus public access)
retirement
education
political involvement
economics and income
costs for medication
housing
pensions
insurance.

What is ageism, and what influence does it have on adult behaviours?

Stereotypes about the elderly give rise to ageism - prejudice against the elderly and the discrimination that follows from it. Ageism is prevalent in the job market, in which older people are not given the same opportunities as their younger co-workers, and in housing and health care. Ageism is exceptionally prevalent in the media - on television and in newspapers, cartoons and magazines - and in everyday language. Older people who are perceived to represent negative stereotypes are more likely to suffer discrimination than those who appear to represent more positive stereotypes. This means that an older person who appears healthy, bright and alert is more likely to be treated with the same respect shown to younger people. By contrast, an older person who appears less capable may not be given the same respect or treatment (Lefton et al., 2000, p. 398).

In general, how do adults feel about growing older?

Perhaps the best news is that as people get older, they get happier and their well-being improves. In a study of nearly 3 000 people ages 25 to 74, the young people were far more likely than the eldest to report feeling sad, nervous, hopeless or worthless. As many people age, they learn to control negative feelings and emphasize the positive. Older couples, compared with younger couples, are less likely to express anger, belligerence, and whining when they quarrel (Tavris and Wade, 2000, p. 536).

What are the cross-culture attitudes towards aging?

Other cultures react differently to both the aging process and their older citizens. For instance, in certain African and Central American tribes, elders are revered for their wisdom. They are also feared, though, because of the belief that they live so long by taking the lives of young people. In some African tribes, old women enjoy increased status because they have authority over their daughters and daughters-in-law and are greatly respected by their sons, who often have stronger ties to their mothers than to their fathers. In addition, being a grandmother automatically demands a high level of respect.

In some Native American nations, as older men withdraw from other roles they have had, they increase their involvement in the community's spiritual life. Younger members of many nations have been showing more interest in rites and traditions in recent years. This renewed interest has led to an increased interest in Elders and what they can tell younger members about their history and spiritual practices. In addition, it is common among North American Indians for everyone to share in the responsibility for taking care of all family members, including older ones.

Among the Chinese, in many Muslim countries, and on an Israeli Kibbutz, putting an old person in some kind of nursing home is virtually unthinkable. Old people in these societies live in a family member's home, where they are taken care of until they die (McMahon and Romano, 2000, pp. 368-369).

7.2.4 Death and Dying

This lesson addresses the facts, attitudes towards and cultural perceptions of death and dying. In addition, we look at the grieving process and compare and contrast that with the process of dying.

Looking through the eyes of the developing person ...

Looking through the eyes of the systems of support ...

Lesson Objectives	When are we dead? How do attitudes towards death change across the lifespan? What are the cultural influences on our perceptions of death and dying? What are the stages of death and dying?
Suggested Instructional Strategies Direct Independent Interactive Indirect Experiential	Discussion: Death, dying and bereavement When you lose your parent, you lose your past. When you lose your spouse, you lose your present. When you lose your child, you lose your future. When you lose a friend, you lose yourself (William Worden). How is death and bereavement viewed or responded to differently across the age span? How do you, your parents and your grandparents view death? What are the similarities and differences in your perspectives on death and dying? Is there a best time to die? Evaluate Kubler-Ross’s stage theory of dying. Have any students had experiences that support or contradict this stage theory? As with any stage theory, can the stages and sequence be said to be universal? Compare and contrast the processes or stages of dying and grieving. Consensus decision making: Euthanasia Should euthanasia be legalized? Discussion: Medical intervention What advice and guidance would you give to parents of a child in a terminally ill, no-hope-of-recovery state? Do people have the right to choose their own time and way of death? Research: Death and dying Conduct a survey research study of people’s attitudes towards death and dying. Brainstorm the survey questions and decide on the types of cross-tabulated analysis (for example by age, by gender). Media Study: Dying Young What are the issues, questions and concerns that are raised in the movie?
Making Connections	Legal wills and living wills Suicide: Causes, statistics, prevention and issues After-life experiences: Fact or fiction?
Resources	Movie: Dying Young

Lesson 7.2.4: Teacher Information

When are we dead?

The answer to that question is most complex. To begin with, there are several kinds of death. Physiological death occurs when all physical processes that sustain life cease. Brain death is defined as a total absence of brain activity for at least ten minutes. Cerebral death means cessation of activity in the cerebral cortex. Social death refers to a process through which other people relinquish their relationships with the deceased (Baron et al., 1998, p. 391).

How do attitudes towards death change across the lifespan?

Death in infancy and childhood: As statistics indicate, the number of people who experience the death of an infant is substantial, and their reactions may be profound. One of the most common reactions is extreme depression. Another kind of death that is extremely difficult to deal with is prenatal death, or miscarriage. Parents typically form psychological bonds with their unborn child and consequently they often feel profound grief if it dies before it is born. Another form of death that produces extreme stress, in part because it is so unexpected, is Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS). For parents, the death of a child produces the most profound sense of loss and grief. In fact, there is no worse death in the eyes of most parents, including the loss of a spouse or of parents. Parents’ extreme reaction is partly based on the sense that the natural order of the world, in which children should outlive their parents, has somehow collapsed. Furthermore, parents feel that it is their primary responsibility to protect their children from any harm, and they may feel that they have failed in this task when a child dies.

Death in adolescence: We might expect the significant advances in cognitive development that occur during adolescence to bring about a sophisticated, thoughtful and reasoned view of death. However, in many ways, adolescents’ views of death are as unrealistic as those of younger children, although along different lines. Although adolescents clearly understand the finality and irreversibility of death, their view often tends to be highly romantic. Adolescents develop a personal fable, a set of beliefs that causes them to feel unique and special. Such thinking can lead to quite risky behaviour, as personal fables induce a sense of invulnerability. Many times, this risky behaviour causes death in adolescence. For instance, the most frequent cause of death among adolescents is accidents, most often involving motor vehicles. Other frequent causes include homicide, suicide, cancer and AIDS.

Death in young adulthood: Young adulthood is the time when most people feel primed to begin their lives. Past the preparatory time of childhood and adolescence, they are on the threshold of making their mark on the world. Because death at this point in life seems close to unthinkable, its occurrence is particularly unimaginable. Because they are actively pursuing their goals for life, they are angry and impatient with any illness that threatens their future. In early adulthood the leading cause of death continues to be accidents, followed by suicide, homicide, AIDS and cancer. For those people facing death in early adulthood, several concerns are of particular importance. One is the desire to develop intimate relationships and express sexuality, both of which are inhibited, if not completely prevented, by a terminal illness. Another particular concern during early adulthood concerns future planning. At a time when most young people are mapping out their careers and deciding at what point to start a family, young adults who have a terminal illness face additional burdens. Like adolescents, young adults sometimes make poor patients. They are outraged at their plight and feel the world is unfair, and they may direct their anger at care providers and loved ones.

Death in middle adulthood: For people in middle adulthood, the shock of a life-threatening disease – which is the most common form of death in this period – is not so great. In fact, by this point, people are well aware of the fact that they are going to die sometime, and they may be able to consider the possibility of death in a fairly realistic manner. On the other hand, their sense of realism doesn’t make the possibility of dying any easier. In fact, fears about death are often greater in middle adulthood than at any time previously – or even later in life.

Death in late adulthood: By the time they reach late adulthood, people know with some certainty that their time is coming to an end. They think about death, and they may begin to make preparations for their demise. Some begin to pull away from the world due to diminishing physical and psychological energy. Furthermore, they face an increasing number of deaths in their environment. The most likely causes of death are cancer, stroke and heart disease in late adulthood. The prevalence of death in the lives of elderly people makes them less anxious about dying than they were at earlier stages of life. They are more realistic and reflective about it. One particular salient issue for older adults suffering from a terminal illness is whether their lives still have value. More than younger individuals, elderly people who are dying harbour concerns that they are burdens to their family or to society (Feldman, 2000, pp. 643-647).

What are the cultural influences on our perceptions of death and dying?

People’s responses to death take many forms, particularly in different cultures. But even within Western societies, reactions to death and dying are quite diverse. For instance, consider which is better: for a man to die after a full life, in which he has raised a family and been successful in his job, or for a courageous and valiant young soldier to die defending his country in wartime. Has one person died a better death than the other?

The answer depends on one’s values, which are largely due to cultural and subcultural teachings. For instance, some cultures view death as a punishment or a judgment about one’s contributions to the world. Others see death as a redemption from an earthly life of difficulty. Still others see death as the start of an eternal life, while some believe that there is no heaven or hell and that an earthly life is all that there is.

Given that religious teachings regarding the meaning of life and death are quite diverse, it is not surprising that views of death and dying vary substantially. We cannot be sure whether such differences are due to different religious and cultural backgrounds, or whether differences in exposure to dying people influence the rate at which the understanding of death develops. However it is clear that members of the various groups have very different conceptions of death.

In addition, members of some cultures seem to learn about death at an earlier age than others. For instance, exposure to higher levels of violence and death may led to an awareness of death earlier in some cultures than cultures in which violence is less a part of everyday life. Research shows that children in Northern Ireland and Israel understand the finality, irreversibility and inevitability of death at an earlier age than children in the United States or Britain (Feldman, 2000, p. 647).

What are the stages of death and dying?

No individual has had a greater influence on our understanding of the way people confront death than Elisabeth Kubler-Ross who developed a stage theory of death and dying built on extensive interviews with people who were dying and with those who cared for them.

Stage 1: Denial. Denial comes in several forms. A patient may flatly reject the diagnosis, simply refusing to believe the news. In other forms of denial, patients fluctuate between refusing to accept the news and, at other times, confiding that they know they are going to die. Patients deal with loneliness, internal conflict, guilt and feelings of the meaningless of their lives.
Stage 2: Anger. A dying person may be angry at everyone: people who are in good health, their spouses and other family members, those who are caring for them, their children. They may lash out at others, and wonder – out loud – why they are dying and not someone else.
Stage 3: Bargaining. In the bargaining stage, dying people try to negotiate their way out of death. In some ways, bargaining seems to have positive consequences. Although death cannot be postponed indefinitely, having a goal of attending a particular event or living until a certain time may in fact delay death until then. However, there is a gradual realization of the real consequences of their condition.
Stage 4: Depression. Realizing that the issue is settled and they cannot bargain their way out of death, people are overwhelmed with a deep sense of loss. They know that they are losing their loved ones and that their lives are coming to an end. The depression they experience may be of two types. In reactive depression, the feelings of sadness are based on events that have already occurred: the loss of dignity that may accompany medical procedures, the end of a job, or the knowledge that one will never return home. On the other hand, dying people also experience preparatory depression, feeling sadness over future losses. They know that death will bring an end to their relationships with others, and that they will never see future generations.
Stage 5: Acceptance. In this last stage people are fully aware that they are dying. Increasingly self-reliant, they have made peace with themselves. For them, death holds no sting (Feldman, 2000, p. 649).

7.3 Socioemotional changes

This lesson focuses on the socioemotional changes from adolescence through young adulthood into middle adulthood and “mid-life crises” through to the issues and challenges of late adulthood.

Looking through the eyes of the developing person ...

Looking through the eyes of the systems of support ...

Lesson Objectives	What is the process of socioemotional development in adulthood? Are adults prisoners of childhood? How do the two basic theories of adult development compare?
Suggested Instructional Strategies Direct Independent Interactive Indirect Experiential	Discussion: Theories of adult development Using the two templates supplied in the Curriculum Support Materials (Stage Theories and Life-Events Framework), describe and compare the two theories. Media Study: On Golden Pond View the movie “On Golden Pond” and discuss the issues, challenges and topics related to late adulthood. Discussion: Adulthood Adult development occurs against the backdrop of what many developmental psychologists consider to be the two most important aspects of life: love and work (Carlson et al., 1997, p. 409) Discussion: Are adults prisoners of childhood? What does this quote mean? In what ways are adults a product of their childhood environment? What is the role and importance of parenting on adult development? Research: What is it like to be an adult? Interview an adult in your home or community. Brainstorm interview questions that highlight the benefits, drawbacks, issues, challenges and stressors to adult life. Compare and contrast with the issues of adulthood addressed in this unit: attraction, relationships, marriage, divorce, parenting, careers, etc.
Resources	Curriculum Support Materials: Stage Theories of Adult development Curriculum Support Materials: The Life-Events Framework Media: On Golden Pond

Lesson 7.3: Teacher Information

What is the process of socioemotional development during adulthood?

Adulthood is a time when changes occur in social relationships and positions. These changes do not come in neat, predictable stages but, instead, follow various paths depending on individual experiences - such as being abandoned by a spouse, getting fired from a job, going back to school, remarrying or suffering the death of a spouse.

Are adults prisoners of childhood?

Studies that follow people from childhood to adulthood challenge the widespread assumption that childhood traumas always have specific and inescapable effects:

Recovery from war. After World War II, many European children, made homeless by the war, were adopted by American families. About 20 percent of the children had problems at first, but over the years they all made good progress in school; none had psychiatric problems; and all established happy, affectionate relationships with their new parents.
Recovery from abusive or alcoholic parents. Compared to children of healthy parents, more children of abusive or alcoholic parents become abusive or alcoholic parents themselves, but the majority do not.
Recovery from sexual abuse. Children who have been sexually abused do have more behavioural and emotional symptoms than nonabused children, especially if the abuse is severe, repeated, and part of other chronically stressful experiences in a child's life. Yet the research shows, much to people's surprise, that by adulthood, most victims are as well adjusted as people in the general population. Meta-analyses of studies of nearly 37 000 college students and of more than 12 000 adults have found no overall link between childhood sexual abuse and later emotional disorders or unusual psychological disorders.

Because of these heartening discoveries, some psychologists are looking for the origins of resilience in the children of violent, neglectful, abusive or alcoholic parents. Many of these children have easy-going temperaments or personality traits, such as self-efficacy, that affect how they respond to adversity; they manage to withstand severe hardships. Other resilient children are rescued by love and attention from their siblings, peers and caring adults other than their parents. And some have experiences outside the family - in schools, places of worship, or other organizations - that give them a sense of competence, moral support, solace, religious faith and self-esteem. Perhaps the most powerful reason for the resilience of so many children, and for the changes that adults make throughout their lives, is that we are all constantly interpreting our experiences. We can decide to repeat the mistakes that our parents made or to break free of them. We can decide to remain prisoners of childhood or to strike out in new directions at 20, 50, or 80 (Tavris and Wade, 2000, p. 537).

How do the two basic theories of adult development compare?

Levinson's theory of adult development divides the adult lifespan into distinct eras, each separated from the next by a cross-era transition - the change from one era to the next. An important feature of Levinson's theory is the concept of life structure - the idea that with adult development there is an evolving cognitive framework that reflects an individual's views about nature and the meaning of his or her own life at a particular time (Baron et al., 1998, p. 384).

Erikson (1963) wrote that all individuals go through eight stages in their lives, resolving an inevitable “crisis” at each one:

Stage 6: Intimacy versus isolation is the crisis of young adulthood. Young adults begin to select other people with whom they can form intimate, caring relationships. They learn to relate on an emotionally deep basis with members of the opposite sex and commit to a lasting relationship. Failure to resolve the dilemma of intimacy results in feelings of isolation.
Stage 7: Generativity versus stagnation is the crisis of the middle years. Now that you know who you are and have an intimate relationship, will you sink into complacency and selfishness, or will you experience generativity, the pleasure of creativity and renewal? Parenthood is the most common means for the successful resolution of this stage, but people can be productive, creative and nurturant in other ways, in their work or their relationships with the younger generation. There are four types of generativity:

Biological generativity refers to the conception and birth of infants
Parental generativity refers to the provision of nurturance and guidance to children
Work generativity refers to the development of skills that are passed down to others
Cultural generativity refers to the creation, renovation or conservation of some aspect of the culture that survives.

Stage 8: Ego integrity versus despair is the crisis of old age. As they age, people strive to reach the ultimate goal - wisdom, spiritual tranquility, an acceptance of their lives. Just as the healthy child will not fear life, said Erikson, the healthy adult will not fear death (Tavris and Wade, 2000, p. 530).

7.3.1 Attraction and Intimacy

Attraction and intimacy form two ends of a continuum of “relationship closeness”. This lesson considers all aspects of what attracts us to others, what others find attractive in us, and leads into a consideration of how that attraction deepens into intimacy.

Looking through the eyes of the developing person ...

Looking through the eyes of the systems of support ...

Lesson Objectives	Why are we attracted to people? What is intimacy in a relationship? How can we describe an intimate relationship? What are the different styles of intimate interaction? What is the relationship between gender and intimacy? What influence does culture have on intimacy?
Suggested Instructional Strategies Direct Independent Interactive Indirect Experiential	Discussion: Attraction and relationships Why do you like some people more than others? What attracts you to members of the same gender? What attracts you to members of the opposite gender? What qualities do you most admire in an intimate relationship? Discussion: Intimacy… into me you see What does this quote mean? How is intimacy related to friendship, liking and loving? How do you define or describe intimacy? How does intimacy develop? Discussion: Attachment and intimacy How is attachment in infancy related to intimacy in adulthood? Research/Discussion: Beauty Are we, as a society, biased towards beauty? What evidence can you find to support your position? What are the cultural differences in perceptions of beauty? Find examples from a variety of cultures to illustrate what various cultures consider to be beautiful. What are the features of attractive/beautiful people in various cultures? Gender differences and beauty: What are the characteristics of beautiful males and females? Is there common consensus as to what it means to be beautiful? Consider a research project where you survey males and females to determine their interpretations of beauty. Are there age differences as well, in other words, do our definitions of beauty change as we get older?
Making Connections	Refer to Topic 7.3.2, Love
Resources

Lesson 7.3.1: Teacher Information

Why are we attracted to people?

Why are we attracted to people? There are several reasons:

Similarity: We like people who are similar to us in terms of interests, attitudes or experiences. Differences strengthen a relationship when they are complementary, that is, when each partner's characteristics satisfy the other's needs. Research over the past 20 years into successful and unsuccessful couples demonstrates that partners in successful marriages were similar enough to satisfy each other mentally and physically, but were different enough to meet each other's needs and keep the relationship interesting. Why is similarity so important in attraction? There are at least two possibilities. First, people who are similar provide us with important social validation for our characteristics and beliefs - that is, they provide us with the feeling that we are right. Second, it is likely that we make certain negative inferences about the character of someone who disagrees with us on important issues - not necessarily out of the need to be validated, but because we suspect the individual's opinion is indicative of the kind of person we have found in the past to be unpleasant, immoral, weak or thoughtless. The research evidence for complementarity is mixed at best, and based on only a few studies (Aronson et al., 1994, p. 386).
Reciprocal attraction - We like people who like us, usually. The power of reciprocal attraction is especially strong in the early stages of a relationship. People who approve of us bolster our self-esteem.
Gain-loss effect is the finding that we like people the most if we feel we have gained in their estimation of us (i.e., if they initially disliked us but now like us), and that we dislike people the most if we feel we have lost their favour (Aronson et al., 1994, p. 391).
Competence - We like to be around talented people, probably because we hope that their skills and abilities will rub off on us.
Disclosure - Revealing important information about yourself can help build liking. When people share private and personal information with you, it suggests they trust and respect you.
One of the simplest determinants of interpersonal attraction is proximity. The people who, by chance, are the ones you see and interact with the most often are the most likely to become your friends and lovers. Even in a choice as important as a marriage partner, proximity plays a major role. Researchers have found that most people marry someone who sits nearby in the same classroom, lives in the same neighbourhood, or works in the same office or factory. The proximity effect works because of familiarity, or the mere exposure we have to individuals who are nearby (Aronson et al., 1994, p. 373).
Physical attraction - One of the most striking things about the physical attraction phenomenon is that most people assume physical attraction is highly correlated with other desirable traits. Men and women believe that attractive people are more successful, more intelligent, better adjusted, more socially skilled, more interesting, more poised, more exciting, more independent and more sexual than their less attractive counterparts. Beauty constitutes a powerful stereotype (Aronson et al., 1994, p. 377).
The reinforcement-affect model predicts that people will be attracted to someone whom they associate with good feelings, even if the person was not the cause (Alcock et al.,1998, p. 213).

What is intimacy in a relationship?

Burgess and Huston (1979) suggest the following outline as a consensus of opinion on the subject of intimacy:

The two people interact more often for a longer time and in more situations than do less intimate friends or acquaintances.
When apart, they attempt to restore proximity.
They “open up to each other”, revealing secrets, feelings, praise and criticism.
They develop their own ways of communicating.
Each develops the ability to anticipate how the other will behave and feel.
Their behaviours and goals become synchronized - not identical, but they do not get in each other's way.
Each becomes increasingly invested in the relationship.
Increasingly, the self-interest of each depends on the well-being of the relationship.
They see the relationship as virtually irreplaceable and unique.
They tend to relate to others as a pair, or couple.
They like, love and trust each other (Alcock et al.,1998, p. 219).

How can we describe an intimate relationship?

Erikson believed that a prerequisite for intimacy was the attainment of identity (the reconciliation of all of our various roles into one enduring and stable personality). Identity is necessary because we cannot know what it means to love someone and seek to share our life with them until we know who we are and what we want to do with our lives. Thus, genuine intimacy requires us to give up some of our sense of separateness, and we must each have a firm identity to do this (Gross and McIlveen, 1998, p. 419).

What are the different styles of intimate interaction?

Young adults show different styles of intimate attraction. Psychologist Jacob Orlofsky (1976) developed a classification of five styles of intimate relationships:

In the intimate style, the individual forms and maintains one or more deep and long-lasting love relationships.
In the preintimate style, the individual shows mixed emotions about commitment, an ambivalence that is reflected in the strategy of offering love without obligations or long-lasting bonds.
In the stereotyped style, the individual has superficial relationships that tend to be dominated by friendship ties with same-sex rather than opposite-sex individuals.
In the pseudointimate style, the individual maintains a long-lasting sexual attachment with little or no depth or closeness.
In the isolated style, the individual withdraws from social encounters and has little or no social contact with same- or opposite-sex individuals (Santrock, 1999, p. 425).

What is the relationship between gender and intimacy?

Most research does show that women (taken as a group) are more willing than men to share their thoughts and feelings. In terms of the amount and depth of information shared, female-female relationships are at the top of the disclosure list. Male-female relationships come in second while relationships between men involve less disclosure than any other type. At every age, women disclose more than men and the information they reveal is more personal and more likely to include negative information; men are more likely to share positive feelings. Unlike women who prefer personal talk, men grow close to one another by doing things. Men regard practical help as a measure of caring (Adler et al., 2001, p. 328).

What influence does culture have on intimacy?

The greatest differences between Asian and European cultures focuses on the rules for dealing with intimacy: showing emotions, expressing affection in public, engaging in sexual activity and respecting privacy. Disclosure is especially high in North American society. In fact, people from the United States are more disclosing than members of any culture studied. They are likely to disclose more about themselves to acquaintances, and even strangers. By contrast, Germans and Japanese tend to disclose little about themselves except in personal relationships with a select few (Adler et al., 2001, p. 330).

7.3.2 Love

This lesson addresses what is likely the most important and powerful, albeit misunderstood and undefinable, of all human emotions, love.

Looking through the eyes of the developing person ...

Looking through the eyes of the systems of support ...

Lesson Objectives	What does it mean, to love? What are the different types of love? How is liking someone different than loving someone? What influence does culture have on our notions of love?
Suggested Instructional Strategies Direct Independent Interactive Indirect Experiential	Research study: Gender differences and love. How do males and females define love? Are there different types of love? How do you know if you are in love? Is there any validity to the saying, “Love at first sight?” Age and love: Does the meaning and types of love differ with age? Is love universal? Research/Construction: How is love represented in literature, poetry, art, sculpture or music? Create an anthology, or portfolio of different portrayals of love Create a poster, three-panel display, or computer-based presentation on love. Drama: Arms Expert (on the topic of love) Object: One person plays the arms of another person. Rules: One person sits or stands with their arms loosely behind their back. Another person places their arms through the space created by the other person's arms. Read a script or improvise a narrative. Creative dance/music: Love Create a dance to music that portrays the theme of love. Research/Discussion: Love and the mass media How is love, intimacy and romance depicted or portrayed in the media? What value messages are being communicated? Discussion: Love and marriage Do you need to love someone to have a successful, long-term marriage? Discussion/Construction: Sternberg’s model of love Using Sternberg’s triangular model of love (intimacy, commitment, passion), discuss how this model may account for all the varieties of love (liking, romantic, infatuation and companionate). Are there any aspects to Sternberg’s model that are inaccurate or incomplete? Construct your own Model of Love. Research: Making marriages last On the basis of Schlesinger’s list of the ten most important criteria for a lasting marriage (see Ages and Stages, Strengths in Families), interview or survey married couples to compare and contrast their comments and feedback.
Resources	Ages and Stages: Unit Four: Early Childhood, Strengths in Families

Lesson 7.3.2: Teacher Information

What does it mean, to be in love?

Love can assume many forms and varieties, such as the love of one's mate, brother or sister, child, parent or grandparent, friend, or country. Further, love can evolve or change over time, such as when the passionate love of the honeymoon becomes companionate love. How can we conceptualize love as a state? Sternberg (1986) has proposed a triangular model of love representing the varieties of love. All love experiences consist of three components, represented as points on a triangle. These components are:

intimacy, the closeness or bond between the two people, including communication, self-disclosure, and a desire to care for the loved one.
passion, the emotional arousal and physical drives in the love relationship. While physical attraction and sexuality may be prominent, especially in the early phases of the relationship, other intense feelings such as need for self-esteem, nurturance and dominance may also contribute to the experience of passion.
decision/commitment, which represents not only the decision to love someone, but also the commitment to maintain that loving relationship (Alcock et al., 1998, p. 221).

What are the different types of love?

Varieties of love experiences can be described in terms of the relative importance of the three components of intimacy, passion and decision/commitment:

Liking involves intimacy in the absence of passion or decision/commitment; in this sense, liking does not include feelings towards casual acquaintances, but refers to friendships in which one feels closeness, bondedness and warmth toward the other.
Infatuation consists of passion without intimacy or decision/commitment.
Romantic love derives from a combination of intimacy and passion without commitment; or liking with the addition of physical arousal and attraction.
Companionate love involves intimacy and decision/commitment in which the passion, at least in the physical sense, has subsided (Adler et al., 2001, p. 222).

How is liking someone different than loving them?

What seems clear is that loving is not simply an extreme form of liking. In reviewing the research, Berscheid (1985) suggests several ways in which liking and loving differ:

Liking is relatively stable over time, whereas romantic love tends to be more fragile and volatile.
Liking is strongly influenced by the actual exchange of rewards, whereas romantic love is influenced more by what we anticipate in the future.
Liking is influenced in a logical way by rewards (we like people more who reward us more), whereas romantic love is often unrelated or even intensified by frustration or rejection (Alcock et al., 1998, p. 223).

What influence does culture have on our notions of love?

One of the main dimensions on which cultures differ is individualism-collectivism. Individualism places greater emphasis on personal achievement and self-reliance. Collectivism, by contrast, places priority on the welfare and unity of the group. Goodwin (1995) argues that love, at least in its passionate stomach churning Hollywood manifestation, is largely a Western and individualistic phenomenon and that in Western cultures, marriage is seen as the culmination of a loving relationship. In cultures where arranged marriages occur, the relationship between love and marriage is the other way around, and marriage is seen as the basis on which to explore a loving relationship. The cultural background in which people have learned about love is important in shaping their concept of it (Gross and McIlveen, 1998, p. 485).

7.3.3 Relationships

In this lesson, we address the complexities of interpersonal relationships ranging from acquaintances to friendships and long-term committed relationships.

Looking through the eyes of the developing person ...

Looking through the eyes of the systems of support ...

Lesson Objectives	How do we define interpersonal relationships? Why do we establish interpersonal relationships? How do we establish and maintain relationships? What are the levels of relationship maturity? Why do people remain in unsatisfying relationships? What influence does culture have on interpersonal relationships?
Suggested Instructional Strategies Direct Independent Interactive Indirect Experiential	Discussion: Personal qualities What do you consider to be the basic qualities of a friend? What qualities in a spouse do you consider to be the most important? Are there differences between your expectations for a friend and for a spouse? If so, why? If not, why? Jigsaw/Role Play: Models of relationship establishment Assign one of the six models of relationship establishment and maintenance (process, attachment and stage) to a small group. Each group will create a role play based on the principles of each model. Jigsaw/Presentation/Role Play: Models of relationship dissolution Assign one of the three models of relationship dissolution (D-E-N-R-T, Phase-Threshold model, Exit-Voice-Loyalty-Neglect model) to a small group. Each group will create a presentation or role play based on the principles of each model. Discussion: Valuing and confirming In what ways do we demonstrate confirming and valuing behaviours to our friends? Using the concept of the Medicine Wheel, discuss confirming and valuing behaviours and attitudes for each of our physical, mental, emotional and spiritual aspects. Discussion: Rules in relationships What rules do you have for these different types of relationships: friendship, intimate, family, business, athletic, social, marital?
Making Connections	Marriage Separation and Divorce Codependent relationships: What are they and what are the implications for relationships? Love, attraction and intimacy Friendships Group dynamics, association and membership
Resources	Curriculum Support Materials: The Medicine Wheel

Lesson 7.3.3: Teacher Information

How do we define interpersonal relationships?

Long-term relationships can be described in one of two ways:

Exchange relationships are governed by the need for equity or an equal ratio of rewards and costs. In these types of relationships:

We like to be repaid immediately for our favours.
We feel exploited when our favours are not returned.
We keep track of who is contributing what to the relationship.
Being able to help the other person has no effect on our mood.

Communal relationships are those in which the people's primary concern is being responsive to the other person's needs. In these types of relationships:

We do not like to be repaid immediately for our favours.
We do not feel exploited when our favours are not repaid.
We do not keep track of who is contributing what to the relationship.
Being able to help the person puts us in a good mood (Aronson et al., 1994, p. 404).

Why do we establish relationships?

Intimacy

Dimensions of intimacy:

Physical intimacy begins with attachment during infancy and is demonstrated by hugs, kisses, and physical closeness.
Intellectual intimacy involves the exchange of important ideas, values and beliefs.
Emotional intimacy involves the exchange of important feelings.
Shared activities can include everything from working side-by-side at a job to meeting regularly for exercise workouts (Adler et al., 2001, p. 325)

Rewards

Intimacy can be satisfying, but it is not the only payoff that drives us to seek out and stay in relationships. Some social scientists have argued that all relationships - both personal and impersonal - are based on a semi-economic model called social exchange theory. This approach suggests that we often seek out people who can give us rewards - either tangible or emotional - that are greater than or equal to the costs we encounter in dealing with them. Social exchange theorists define rewards as any outcomes we desire. A simple formula captures the social exchange theory for why we form and maintain relationships:

Rewards - Costs = Outcome

According to social exchange theory, we use two standards in arriving at a judgement or decision: Comparison level are standards of what behaviours are acceptable; and comparison level of alternatives refers to a comparison between the rewards received in the present situation versus other rewards that could be expected to receive in others. Foa (1971) proposes that in a social exchange model of relationships, there are six interpersonal resources that can be exchanged: love, status, information, money, goods and services (Alcock et al., 1998, p. 218).

Equity theory

Some researchers have criticized social exchange theory for ignoring an essential variable in relationships: the notion of fairness, or equity. Equity theorists argue that people are not just out to get the most rewards for the least cost; they are also concerned about equity in their relationships, wherein the rewards and costs they experience and the contributions they make to the relationship are roughly equal to the rewards, costs and contributions of the other person (Aronson et al., 1994, p. 395).

Confirming and Valuing

Communication climate, or the emotional tone of a relationship, is the key to positive relationships. A climate doesn't involve specific activities as much as the way people feel about each other as they carry out those activities. The tone of a relationship is shaped by the degree to which people believe themselves to be valued by one another. Social scientists use the term confirming to describe messages that convey valuing (Adler et al., 2001, p. 389).

How do we establish and maintain relationships?

Process Models

Not all theorists agree that a stage-related view is the best way to explain interaction in relationships. Some suggest that people grapple with the same kinds of challenges whether a relationship is brand new or has lasted decades. They argue that people seek important but inherently incompatible goals throughout virtually all of their relationships. The struggle to achieve these goals creates conflicts that arise when two opposing or incompatible forces exist simultaneously. Three powerful dialectical tensions includes:

Connection versus Autonomy - The conflicting desires for connection with another person and independence.
Predictability versus Novelty - stability is an important need in relationships, but too much of it can lead to feelings of staleness.
Openness versus Privacy - Along with the drive for intimacy, we have an equally important need to maintain some space between ourselves and others.

Argyle and Henderson (1984) have conducted many studies looking at the rules people use in different types of relationships. By rules, they mean shared opinions or beliefs about what should or should not be done. According to Argyle and Henderson the two major functions of rules are to regulate behaviour in order to minimize potential sources of conflict, and to check on the exchange of rewards that motivate people to stay in relationships. Their research has uncovered rules that are thought to apply to all or most types of relationships, such as “respecting other people’s privacy”, “not discussing what has been said in confidence” and “being emotionally supportive”. Additional rules apply in particular types of relationships. Argyle and Henderson's research indicates that relationships fall into clusters, with similar rules applying within a particular cluster. One such cluster includes spouse, sibling and close friends, whilst another includes doctor, teacher and boss. Deception is probably the most important rule that should not be broken.

However, what counts as deception will depend on the nature of the relationship: if we cannot trust a friend or a partner, then the relationship is almost certainly doomed (Gross and McIlveen, 1998, p. 480).

Filter Theory

According to Kerckhoff and Davis (1962), relationships pass through a series of filters. They base this claim on a comparison between short-term couples (less than 18 months) and long term couples. Initially, similarity of sociological (or demographic) variables (such as ethnic, racial, religious and social class groups) determines the likelihood of people meeting in the first place. To some extent, our choice of friends and partners is made for us because “the field of availables” (the range of people who are realistically, as opposed to theoretically, available for us to meet) is reduced by social circumstances. The next filter involves people's psychological characteristics and, specifically, agreement on basic values. Kerckhoff and Davis found this was the best predictor of a relationship becoming more stable and permanent. Thus, those who had been together for less than 18 months tended to have stronger relationships when the partners’ values coincided. With couples of longer standing, though, similarity was not the most important factor. In fact, complementarity of emotional needs was the best predictor of a longer term commitment, and this constitutes the third filter (Gross and McIlveen, 1998, p. 486).

Attachment Models

Ainsworth (1978) discovered that infants form one of three basic attachments to the caregiver. The crucial feature determining the quality of attachment is the caregiver’s sensitivity, or the quality of response to the baby’s needs. The sensitive caregiver sees things from the baby’s perspective, correctly interprets its signals, responds to its needs, and is accepting, cooperative and accessible. By contrast, the insensitive caregivers interacts almost exclusively in terms of their own wishes, moods and activities. Ainsworth’s research indicated that sensitive caregivers have babies that are securely attached, whereas insensitive caregivers have insecurely attached babies. The insecurely attached babies were either anxious-avoidant or anxious-resistant. (Gross and McIlveen, 1998, p. 329)

Stage Models

One of the best known models of relational stages was developed by Mark Knapp (1998), who broke down the rise and fall of relationships into 10 stages, contained in the broad phases of “coming together” and “coming apart”. The following stages are especially descriptive of intimate, romantic relationships and close friendships.

Initiating - Expressing interest in making contact and showing that you are the kind of person worth getting to know.
Experimenting - This stage involves uncertainty reduction, or the process of getting to know to know others by gaining more information about them.
Intensifying - Interpersonal relationships now begin to emerge. Feelings about the other person are now openly expressed, forms of address become more familiar, commitment is now openly expressed, and the parties begin to see themselves as “we” instead of separate individuals.
Integrating - Identification as a social unit. Social circles merge. Partners develop unique, ritualistic ways of behaving. Obligation to the other person increases. Some personal characteristics are replaced and we become different people.
Bonding - The parties make symbolic public gestures to show society that their relationship exists (rings, tokens, marriage).
Differentiating - The need to re-establish separate identities begins to emerge. The key to successful differentiation is maintaining a commitment to the relationship while creating the space for autonomy and individuality.
Circumscribing - Communication between the partners decreases in quantity and quality. It involves a certain amount of shrinking of interest and commitment.
Stagnating - No growth occurs. Partners behave toward each other in old, familiar ways without much feeling.
Avoiding - The creation of physical, mental and emotional distance between the partners.
Termination - In romantic relationships the best predictor of whether the parties will become friends is whether they were friends before their emotional involvement ( Adler et al., 2001, p. 335).

Stimulus-Value-Role Theory

Murstein (1987) sees relationships proceeding from a stimulus stage, in which attraction is based on external attributes (such as physical appearance), to a value stage in which similarity of values and beliefs becomes more important. The comes a role stage, which involves a commitment based on successful performance of relationship roles such as husband and wife. Although all these factors have some influence throughout a relationship, each one assumes its greatest significance during one particular stage (Gross and McIlveen, 1998, p. 486).

Levinger's Theory

For Levinger (1980) relationships pass through five stages rather than the three proposed by Murstein. These are: acquaintance or initial attraction, building up the relationship, consolidation or continuation, deterioration and decline, and ending. At each stage, there are positive factors that promote the relationship's development and corresponding negative factors that prevent its development or cause its failure (Gross and McIlveen, 1998, p. 486).

What are the levels of relationship maturity?

A desirable goal is to develop a mature identity and have positive, close relationships with others. Kathleen White (1987) has developed a model of relationship maturity that includes this goal as its highest level. Individuals are described as moving through three levels of relationship maturity: self-focused, role-focused, and individuated-connected.

The self-focused level is the first level of relationship maturity, at which one’s perspective on another person or a relationship is concerned only with how it affects oneself. The individual’s own wishes and plans overshadows those of others, and the individual shows little concern for others.
The role-focused level is the second or intermediate level of relationship maturity, when one begins to perceive others as individuals in their own right. However, at this level the perspective is stereotypical and emphasizes social acceptability. Individuals at this level know that acknowledging and respecting another is part of being a good friend or a romantic partner.
The individuated-connected level is the highest level of relationship maturity, when one begins to understand oneself, as well as to have consideration for others’ motivations and to anticipate their needs. Concern and caring involve emotional support and individualized expressions of interest (Santrock, 1999, p. 425).

Why do people remain in unsatisfying relationships?

Akert (1992) found that the role people played in the decision to end the relationship was the single most powerful predictor of their breakup experiences. Not surprisingly, those people who did not initiate the breakup were the most miserable, they reported high levels of loneliness, depression, unhappiness and anger, and virtually all reported experiencing physical disorders in the weeks after the breakup as well. Those who indicated responsibility for the breakup of the relationship found the end of the relationship the least upsetting, the least painful and the least stressful. Although they did report feeling guilty and unhappy, they had the fewest negative symptoms such as headaches, eating and sleeping irregularities (Aronson et al., 1994, p. 412).

What influence does culture have on interpersonal relationships?

One of the main dimensions on which cultures differ is individualism-collectivism. Individualism places greater emphasis on personal achievement and self-reliance. Collectivism, by contrast, places priority on the welfare and unity of the group. In cultures where arranged marriages occur, the relationship between love and marriage is the other way around, and marriage is seen as the basis on which to explore a loving relationship. As Bellur (1995) notes, the cultural background in which people have learned about love is important in shaping their concept of it (Gross and McIlveen, 1998, p. 485).

How do relationships dissolve?

Lee's model of relationship dissolution

Lee (1984) has proposed that there are five stages in premarital romantic breakups. First of all, dissatisfaction is discovered. This dissatisfaction is then exposed. Some sort of negotiation about the dissatisfaction occurs, and attempts are made to resolve the problem. Finally, the relationship is terminated. In his research, Lee found that exposure and negotiation tended to be experienced as the most intense, dramatic, exhausting and negative aspects of the whole experience. Lee also found that in those cases where the passage from dissatisfaction to termination was particularly prolonged, people reported feeling more attracted to their ex-partners and experienced the greatest loneliness and fear during the breakup (Gross and McIlveen, 1998, p. 496).

Duck's Model (Phase-Threshold Model)

Duck’s model of relationship dissolution (1992) consists of four phases, each of which is initiated when a threshold is broken. The first, intrapsychic phase, begins when one partner sees him- or herself as being unable to stand the relationship any more. This initiates a focus on the other's behaviour, and an assessment of how adequate the partner's role performance is. Also, the individual begins to assess the negative aspects of being in the relationship, considers the costs of withdrawal, and assesses the positive aspects of being in another relationship. Duck uses the term intrapsychic because the processes are occurring only in the individual's mind and have not yet shown themselves in actual behaviour. The next threshold is when the individual considers himself or herself as being justified in withdrawing from the relationship. This leads to the dyadic phase, and involves the other partner. Here, the dissatisfied individual must decide whether to confront or avoid the partner. When this decision is made, negotiations occur about, for example, whether the relationship can be repaired and the joint costs of withdrawal or reduced intimacy. If the negotiations in this phase are unsuccessful, the next threshold is when the dissatisfied partner decides that he or she means the relationship to end. This leads to the social phase, so-called because it involves consideration of the social implications of the relationship's dissolution. This state of the relationship is made public at least within the individual's own social network, and publicly negotiable face-saving/blame-placing stories and accounts of the relationship's breakdown may be given. Intervention teams such as family or very close friends may be called in to try to bring a reconciliation. Unless the intervention teams are successful, the next threshold is when the relationship's dissolution becomes inevitable. This leads to the final grave-dressing phase. In this, the partners attempt to get over the relationship's dissolution and engage in their own post-mortem about why the relationship dissolved, a version of events which is then given to family and friends. Each partner needs to emerge from the relationship with an intact reputation for future “relationship reliability” purposes (Gross and McIlveen, 1998, p. 496).

Rusbult’s Exit-Voice-Loyalty-Neglect Model

According to Rusbult's (1987) exit-voice-neglect-loyalty model, there are four basic responses to relationship dissatisfaction. These are exit (leaving the relationship), neglect (ignoring the relationship), voice (articulating concerns) and loyalty (staying in the relationship and accepting the other's behaviour). The two active strategies in the face of dissatisfaction are exit and voice, whilst the two passive strategies are neglect and loyalty. Exit and neglect are destructive whilst voice and loyalty are constructive (Gross and McIlveen, 1998, p. 497).

7.3.4 Marriage and Divorce

This lesson addresses the issues, trends and challenges in one of the foundational social institutions, marriage.

Looking through the eyes of the developing person ...

Looking through the eyes of the systems of support ...

Lesson Objectives	What makes a good marriage? What is the process of being married? What are the trends in marriage? What are the causes of divorce? What are the effects of divorce on adults?
Suggested Instructional Strategies Direct Independent Interactive Indirect Experiential	Discussion: Marriage as union? Some experts on marriage and the family believe that marriage represents such a different phenomenon for women and men that we need to speak of “her” marriage and “his” marriage (Santrock, 1999). What are the implications of this statement for young couples? What would constitute the differences between “his” and “her” marriages? Ages and Stages : Strengths in families Read the article in the Ages and Stages article, and discuss the values and qualities that make marriages last. From the list provided in the article, priorize the top 10. Discussion: Terminal values and marriage What values are most important in a spouse? Refer to the Curriculum Support Materials section, The Nature of Human Values. How do these values listed above relate to Rokeach’s Terminal Values? Research: Married couple Why did you get married? What attracted you to each other? What are the issues, challenges and hurdles to be faced in marriage? What are the benefits of being married? What have you learned? Research: Beliefs/Values/Attitudes Similarities and differences between husbands and wives
Making Connections	Relationship dissolution
Resources	Ages and Stages: Strengths in Families Curriculum Support Materials: The Nature of Human Values

Lesson 7.3.4: Teacher Information

What makes a good marriage?

Despite the somewhat shaky image of the institution of marriage, most people marry and expect the marriage to last. For about half of these couples, that expectation will be realized. None knows exactly what it is that makes any particular marriage work. Sometimes the most unlikely combinations are wonderful successes. However, there is one critical ingredient - mutual respect, a term that encompasses a great deal. Respect means that you view others as important people, paying attention to them and seeing their ideas, abilities, needs and wants as meaningful and worthwhile. Mutual respect means that two people both give and receive respect. It means that you treat the other person with consideration, not demeaning or insulting him or her. This quality does not guarantee success. However, without mutual respect, a marriage simply cannot work (McMahon and Romano, 2000, p. 340).

What is the process of marriage?

For 95 percent of adults under forty falling in love with someone results in marriage. Newlyweds are generally happy with their marriages and seem to become happier when children enter the picture. However, as children begin to demand more of their parents’ time and emotional resources, couples report increasing unhappiness in marriage. Generally speaking, mothers assume more responsibilities than fathers for the day-to-day care of children. As a result, they spend more time doing housework and less time talking to their husbands which can place strain on marital happiness. However, if husband and wife can find time together in the evenings, and if the husband is able to share in the parenting and household chores, the stress of adapting to family life is lessened considerably. As children grow older and become more self-sufficient in caring for themselves, the day-to-day burdens of raising a family taper off and husbands and wives are able to spend more time with each other. However, adolescents pose new problems for their parents. They may question parental authority, and their burgeoning social agenda may put a wrinkle in their parents' personal and social calendars. For many parents, rearing adolescents, particularly during the time just prior to their leaving home, represents the low point of martial happiness. Generally speaking, once a family's youngest child has left home, marital happiness increases and continues to do so through the remainder of the couple's life together (Buskist et al., 1997, p. 410).

What are the trends in marriage?

Until about 1930, the goal of a stable marriage was widely accepted as a legitimate endpoint of adult development. In the last 60 years, however, we have seen the emergence of personal fulfillment both inside and outside a marriage that competes with marriage’s stability as an adult developmental goal. The changing norm of male-female equality in marriage has produced marital relationships that are more fragile and intense than they were earlier in the twentieth century. More adults are remaining single longer in the 1990s, and the average duration of a marriage in the United States is currently just over nine years. In 1994, the U.S. average age for a first marriage climbed to 26.7 years for men and 24.5 years for women, higher than at any point in history. Even with adults remaining single for longer and divorce being a frequent occurrence, Americans still show a strong predilection for marriage – the proportion of women who never marry has remained at about 7 percent throughout the twentieth century (Santrock, 1999, p. 419).

What are the causes of divorce?

Couples who report being happy in their marriage agree with each other on aims, goals, and sex life; they genuinely like their spouse as a good friend; they are committed to the relationship and want it to succeed. They share many positive experiences and are proud of their spouse’s achievements. Happily married people direct positive messages to their spouses: they express affection, approval, appreciation and pleasure, just as they did during courtship. In contrast people who report being unhappy in their marriage often adopt a negative pattern of communication. They direct mainly criticisms towards their spouses, blame them for everything and anything that goes wrong, and rarely express positive feelings or approval.

Couples who divorce also differ from happy ones in many other ways. First, they have basic disagreements about aims, goals, lifestyles, sex and many other matters. Second, they report high levels of boredom in their relationship. They do not enjoy doing things with their spouse. Third, the spouse no longer fills their need for affection, esteem and approval.

Additional factors associated with divorce include low income, brief courtship, unrealistic expectations about the relationship, and pregnancy at the time of marriage. Couples whose parents have been divorced are more likely to divorce (Baron et al., 1998, p. 386).

What are the effects of divorce on adults?

In his review of relevant studies, Duck (1992) found that people in disrupted relationships are more susceptible than others of the same gender and age group to coronary heart disease, alcoholism, drug dependency and sleep disturbances. There may be, however, important gender differences regarding the effects of divorce, depending on the point of the dissolution process being considered. Whilst much has been made of the detrimental effects of divorce on men, as opposed to women, these effects usually occur after the relationship has ended. Men discover that they miss the emotional support that marriage can provide, and that on their own they have very little opportunity to express feelings to friends around them. With women it is the stage before divorce, during marital stress, when they are far more likely than men to become depressed. That is the point when marriage is probably worse for female mental stability than divorce itself (Gross and McIlveen, 1998, p. 495).

7.3.5 Personality Development

This lesson represents the synthesis of all aspects of this unit, by looking at the biological, mental, emotional and spiritual aspects that together address the core question: Who Am I?

Looking through the eyes of the developing person ...

Looking through the eyes of the systems of support ...

Lesson Objectives	What does it mean to have a personality? How do personalities develop? Are personalities fixed for life, or do they change? Is there a biological basis for personality? What is the relationship between personality, lifestyle and health? What kind of personality do you have?
Suggested Instructional Strategies Direct Independent Interactive Indirect Experiential	Discussion: Personality development in adulthood Using the template supplied in the Curriculum Support Materials, Life-Events Framework, discuss with the students the role of personality as a mediating variable in adult development. Reflection: Ask each student to answer this question: Are you basically a happy person? Why or why not? This exercise will guide to students to consider their basic personality traits, which will lead into a discussion of the basic theories of personality. Discussion: Using the template found in the Curriculum Support Materials, Emotions, Attitudes and Personality Traits, as the conceptual organizer, discuss the emotions and attitudes that Eysenck (1973) relates to the four basic personality traits. What behaviours are associated with each of the four basic traits? Ask each student to reflect on where they fit in terms of the model as presented. In what ways are your personality characteristics similar to those of your parents or other family members? In what ways are your personality traits similar to those of your friends? Why do some people take more risks than others? Construction: My theory of personality development Develop your own theory of personality development.
Making Connections	Surprisingly little evidence shows that such traits as dominance, charisma, and self-confidence predict who will become leaders (Aronson et al., 1994, p. 612) So what might be the predictors of leadership? What personality traits would you want in a leader?
Resources	Curriculum Support Materials: Emotions, Attitudes and Personality Traits Curriculum Support Materials: Life-Events Framework Annenberg/CPB Exhibits: http://www.learner.org/exhibits/personality

Lesson 7.3.5: Teacher Information

What does it mean to have a personality?

Your personality represents the sum of all your psychological, behavioural and biological processes. It reflects the consistent patterns of thinking, feeling and behaving that make you different from and, in some ways, similar to others (Bernstein and Nash, 1999, p. 406).

Researchers have found what are called the “big five” dimensions of temperament:

Extroversion: the tendency to be outgoing, assertive and active.
Agreeableness: the tendency to be kind, helpful and easygoing.
Conscientiousness: the tendency to be organized, deliberate and conforming.
Neuroticism: the tendency to be anxious, moody, and self-punishing.
Openness: the tendency to be imaginative, curious, artistic and welcoming of new experiences (Berger, 2000, p. 221).

How do personalities develop?

Each of the general perspectives on human behaviour and development explains the process of personality development:

The psychodynamic approach: Freud, on the basis of his work in treating “neurotic disorders”, came to believe that personality and behaviour are determined more by psychological factors than by biological conditions or current events. He proposed that people may not know why they think, feel or act the way they do because they are partly controlled by the unconscious portion of the personality - the part of which people are normally unaware.
The trait approach to personality makes three main assumptions:

Personality traits remain relatively stable and therefore predictable over time.
Personality traits remain relatively stable across diverse situations, and they can explain why people act in predictable ways in many different settings.
People differ with regard to how much of a particular personality trait they possess; no two people are exactly alike on all traits. The result is an endless variety of unique personalities.

A cognitive-behavioural approach views personality as a set of behaviours that people acquire through learning and then display in particular situations. It defines personality as the sum total of the behaviours and cognitive habits that develop as people learn through experience in the social world.
The phenomenological (humanistic) approach maintains that the primary human motivator is an innate drive toward personal growth that prompts people to fulfil their unique and natural potential. Like the planted seed that naturally becomes a flower, people are inclined towards goodness, creativity, love and joy. Proponents of this theory emphasise that each individual perceives reality somewhat differently and that these differences, rather than traits, instincts or learning experiences, are central to creating personality differences (Bernstein and Nash, 1999, pp. 408-426).

Are personalities fixed for life, or do they change?

Research shows that personality may be sensitive to the unique experiences of the individual, especially during the adult years. Important shifts, some related to cognitive maturity, occur in many individuals once they reach adulthood. For example, adults are more likely to be assertive and self-confident than when they were younger. However, once established, such shifts remain stable. Further, major life events - for example, a child's tragic death, a highly stressful situation, or a divorce - not surprisingly, can alter a person's overall outlook on life (Lefton et al., 2000, p. 395).

Is there a biological basis for personality?

Every individual is born with a distinct, genetically based set of psychological tendencies, or dispositions. These tendencies, which together are called temperament, affect and shape virtually every aspect of the individual's developing personality. Temperament, and therefore personality, is not merely genetic. It begins in the multitude of genetic instructions that guide the development of the brain and then is affected by the prenatal environment (Berger, 2000, p. 219).

What is the relationship between personality, lifestyle and health?

Emotional stability and personality are related to health in adulthood. In the Berkeley Longitudinal Study, as individuals aged from 34 to 50, those who were the most healthy were also the most calm, the most self-controlled, and the most responsible. Three clusters of personality characteristics that have been extensively investigated as factors in stress are Type A behaviour, Type C behaviour, and hardiness.

Type A behaviour pattern refers to a cluster of characteristics – being excessively competitive, hard-driven, impatient and hostile – thought to be related to the incidence of heart disease. People who are hostile or consistently turn anger inward are more likely to develop heart disease.
Type C behaviour refers to the cancer-prone personality, which consists of being inhibited, emotionally inexpressive, and otherwise constrained. This type of individual is more likely to develop cancer than are more expressive people. The concept of Type C behaviour fits with the findings of stress and health researchers, who have found that being inhibited about talking with others about problems can be an impairment to health.
Hardiness is a personality style characterised by a sense of commitment (rather than alienation), control (rather than powerlessness), and a perception of problems as challenges (rather than threats) (Santrock, 1999, p. 442).

7.3.6 Senior Citizens

This lesson addresses the social, economic, political and support service impact of an increasingly important and influential group in society, senior citizens.

Looking through the eyes of the developing person ...

Looking through the eyes of the systems of support ...

Lesson Objectives

Who are senior citizens?

How much income do seniors have?

What economic impact do seniors have on the Canadian economy?

Where do seniors live in Canada?

What are some issues that seniors face?

Suggested Instructional Strategies

Direct

Independent

Interactive

Indirect

Experiential

Research: Senior Citizens

Interview a senior citizen to discuss the issues, challenges, successes and hardships of being a senior in your community.

How has society changed since they were a teenager?

What are some of their most vivid memories from their life?

What advice would they give to adolescents today?

Research: Genealogical study

Conduct an informal genealogical study on your family. What are your cultural roots and origins?

Discussion: Seniors in our community

Share the results of the discussions and interviews that the students conducted. Are there common themes? What can be done to enhance the health, safety, well-being and involvement of seniors in your community?

Discussion: Role of seniors

What role do seniors have in your community? How can their experience, expertise, talent and resources be used to enrich their lives and the lives of others in the community?

What will happen as society ages? Who will pay the tax bill for the educational and health care systems? How might society sustain itself when the majority of people are not working, but instead retired and collecting pensions?

Making Connections

Calculate the return on an investment of a sum of money invested at age 20 and left until maturity at age 65, compounded annually at 5 percent interest. What are the implications of this fact for young adults?

Life and health insurance: What is it, how much does it cost, and what are the benefits?

Elder abuse: What is it? How prevalent is it? What are the forms and types of elder abuse?

Mandatory retirement

Resources

Lesson 7.3.6: Teacher Information

Who are senior citizens?

Senior citizens are, by definition, persons aged 65 or older. In the coming decades, seniors will comprise a larger share of the Canadian population, growing from 3.5 million people in 1996 to an estimated 6.9 million people by 2021. Populations are aging in all western industrialized countries. In Sweden, for example, seniors comprise 18 percent of the population while in Canada they form 12 percent of the population.

Since 1920, life expectancy has increased by an average of seven years for men, and 13 years for women.

Only one of every 25 Aboriginal persons is a senior, while one of every eight non-Aboriginal persons is a senior (Health Canada, 1998).

How much income do seniors have?

In 1996, half of families headed by a senior had an income below $33,700. Half of seniors living alone had an income below $15,000.

In 1996, almost one-half of seniors living alone had incomes below Statistics Canada’s low-income cutoff; more than one-half of women aged 65 or older who were living alone had incomes below the cutoff.

On average, families headed by a senior receive about 60 percent of their income from private pensions, investments and earnings, and 40 percent from government pensions and benefits. Women aged 65 and older who are living alone rely on government payments for 62 percent of their income, while men of the same age living alone rely on government payments for 46 percent of their income (Health Canada, 1998).

What economic impact do seniors have on the Canadian economy?

Seniors play an important role as consumers in Canadian society. In 1996, households headed by seniors spent $69 billion dollars on goods, services and taxes, representing 13 percent of all expenditures.

Spending by seniors accounts for a significant portion of total expenditures on many items. In 1996, households headed by seniors represented 21 percent of all households, and spent 21 percent of total consumer dollars on health care, 14 percent on personal care, 13 percent on transportation and 11 percent on recreation.

Expenditures by Seniors, 1996

Category	Expenditure (Billions of dollars)
Housing	$ 14.0
Clothing	$ 2.3
Recreation	$ 3.1
Health/Personal care	$ 3.6
Home supplies and Furnishings	$ 5.1
Personal income taxes	$ 12.5
Food	$ 9.6
Transportation	$ 8.3
Gifts and charity	$ 6.1
Other expenses	$ 5.3

Households headed by seniors spend a larger share of their total income on gifts and charities than do younger households. Over one-fifth of all households headed by seniors spend at least one-tenth of their total after-tax income on gifts and charities, compared with seven percent of households headed by people aged 35 to 54 years.

Seniors also give generously of their time. About half a million seniors provide unpaid care to other seniors and 400 000 provide such care to children. Women aged 65 or older are slightly more likely than men to be unpaid caregivers (Health Canada, 1998).

Where do seniors live in Canada?

The vast majority of seniors live independently and do not require help with daily tasks. Only seven percent of people aged 65 or older live in institutions. The majority of seniors live in urban areas. However, there are large differences in the proportion of seniors living in Canadian cities. In Victoria, seniors account for 18 percent of the total population, but in Calgary and Edmonton, seniors account for 10 percent or less of the population. The majority of men aged 65 and older live with their spouse. Women are more likely to live alone, particularly those aged 75 and older. It is projected that by 2001, one-third of all seniors in Canada will live alone. Most seniors under age 75 live with their spouses, independently in their own homes. But most people aged 80 or older are women, more than half of whom live alone. The majority of these older women living alone are poor (Health Canada, 1998).

7.3.7 Careers/Work/Leisure

One of the most critical issues and decisions that young adults make is that of a career choice. This lesson addresses the issues, choices and pathways of men and women in their careers.

Looking through the eyes of the developing person ...

Looking through the eyes of the systems of support ...

Lesson Objectives	How do the three models of career selection and development compare? What are the issues and challenges for dual-earner marriages? How has the role of women in the workforce changed over the past few decades? How do the work pathways of men and women compare? What is the role and importance of leisure activities?
Suggested Instructional Strategies Direct Independent Interactive Indirect Experiential	Discussion: Models of career choices Compare and contrast the three models. Discuss the applicability of these models in terms of gender. Do any of these models account for work and career pathways for women? Activity: Career personality typing Based on Holland’s six career personality types, reflect on your own type and the implications that might hold for your career plans. Research: Leisure activities Conduct a survey on leisure activities in adults. Research: Career choices. Interview a person active in the workforce. Ask them: - How did you select your career? - What skills, training and education did you achieve? - What do you need to do to stay current in your career? - What career “type” are you? (Refer to Holland’s six career personality types) Research: Television and leisure How much time do adults spend watching television? What television program types (sitcoms, news, sports, movies, etc.) are watched most often?
Making Connections	Post-secondary education: What are the entrance requirements for the career path you are interested in? Changing patterns in job roles: How have the job roles and opportunities changed for women over the past five decades?
Resources	Career Awareness: Human Resources Development Canada Online Resource: Career C ounselling a nd Careers

Lesson 7.3.7: Teacher Information

How do the three models of career selection and development compare?

Three dominant theories describe the manner in which individuals make choices about careers - Ginzberg's developmental theory, Super's self-concept theory and Holland's personality-type theory.

The developmental theory of career choice is Eli Ginzberg's view that individuals go through three career choice stages - fantasy, tentative and realistic. Ginzberg argues that up to the age of 11, children are in the fantasy stage of career choice. From the ages of 11 to 17, adolescents are in the tentative stage of career development. The period from 17 and 18 years of age through the early twenties is called the realistic stage of career choice. At this time, the individual extensively explores available careers, then focuses on a particular career, and finally selects a specific job within the career.
The career self-concept theory is Donald Super's view that the individual's self-concept plays a central role in career choice. Super believes a number of developmental changes in vocational self-concept take place during the adolescent and young adulthood years. Super believes that career choice moves through several stages:

Crystallization: At about 14 to 18 years of age, adolescents develop ideas about work that mesh with their already existing global self-concept.
Specification: Between 18 and 22 years of age, they narrow their career choices and initiate behaviour that enables them to enter some type of career.
Implementation: Between 21 and 24 years of age, young adults complete their education or training and enter the world of work.
Stabilization: The decision on a specific, appropriate career is made between 25 and 35 years of age.
Consolidation: Finally, after the age of 35, individuals seek to advance their careers and reach higher-status positions.

Personality-type theory is vocational theorist John Holland's view that it is important to develop a match or fit between an individual's personality type and the selection of a particular career. Holland proposes six basic career-related personality types: realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising and conventional.

Realistic: Individuals who have this vocational interest like the outdoors and working in manual activities. They are often less social, have difficulty in demanding situations, and prefer to work alone or with other realistic persons. Holland describes the realistic type as physically robust, practical, and often non- or anti-intellectual.
Investigative: The investigative type is interested in ideas more than people, is rather indifferent to social relationships, is troubled by highly emotional situations, and may be perceived by others as being somewhat aloof and yet highly intelligent.
Artistic: The artistic type has a creative orientation. These individuals enjoy working with ideas and materials to express themselves in new ways. Artistic types often have a distaste for conformity, valuing freedom and ambiguity, and sometimes have difficulty in interpersonal relationships.
Social: Oriented to working through and with other people, social types tend to have a helping orientation. They enjoy nurturing and developing others, perhaps working to assist others in need, especially the less advantaged.
Enterprising: Another type that is more oriented toward people than toward either things or ideas is the enterprising type. These individuals seek to dominate others, especially when they want to reach goals. Therefore, enterprising types are good at coordinating the work of others to accomplish a task.
Conventional: This type usually functions best in well structured circumstances and jobs and is skilled at working with details. Conventional individuals like to work with numbers and perform clerical tasks, as opposed to working with ideas or people (Santrock, 1999, p. 401).

How has the role of women in the workforce changed over the past few decades?

The changing role of women is evident in the increasing rate of women's employment. In 1960, only one-third of women with children were employed; but in 1988, 55 percent of married women with infants and 61 percent of women with preschool children worked outside the home. Women's occupations are also changing. Four in ten college women today intend to pursue careers in law, business, medicine, or engineering, while in 1970 only two in ten said they intended to pursue these male-dominated careers. Today, women fill nearly one-third of management positions, an improvement from the 19 percent level in 1972, but most are in jobs with little authority and low pay. Only two percent of senior executives are women, and only 1.7 percent of corporate officers of Fortune 500 companies are women (Santrock, 1999, p. 406).

What are the issues and challenges for dual-earner marriages?

With the dramatic increase in the number of women entering the workforce in the past twenty-five years, many psychologists have focused their research efforts on understanding dual-earner marriages - those in which both parents work full- or part-time. Compared to single-earner marriages, dual-earner families generally have a better standard of living in terms of material possessions and saving money for their children's education and for retirement. Another important benefit accrues, especially to the wife: She is able to achieve recognition and independence outside the home. But all is not bliss in dual-earner marriages. If both partners are working, who manages the household and takes care of the children? In most cases, the woman still does, which often means that she has two roles, one as mother and one as wage earner. Apparently, a husband's support of his wife's working does not always go as far as actually pitching in at home. However, husbands who believe strongly in equality for women are likely to help out at home (Buskist et al., 1997, p. 410).

How do the work pathways of men and women compare?

Most men begin work in early adulthood and work more or less continuously until they retire, unless they return to school or become unemployed. Unstable patterns of work are much more common among low-income workers than among middle-income workers, although a continuous pattern of work is still the norm among low-income workers.

The most common path for the middle-class woman is to work for awhile after finishing high school or even college; to marry and have children. Then, when the children are a little older, she goes back to part-time work to supplement the husband’s income. As the children begin to leave home, the woman goes back to school for some updating of earlier skills or for a retraining program so she can assume a full-time paid job in her forties and fifties, when she is relatively free of responsibilities.

For the professional or career woman, the picture is somewhat different, since she has more invested in keeping up her professional skills. Four career patterns among professional women have been identified:

Regular, the woman who pursued her professional training immediately after graduation, and began to work and continued to do so without interruption or with minimal interruption throughout the years.
Interrupted career, the woman who began as in the regular pattern but interrupted her career for several years – usually for child rearing – and then went back to work full-time.
Second career, the woman who started her professional career near or after the time the children left home or after a divorce.
Modified second career, the woman who started her professional training while the children were still at home but old enough not to need full-time mothering, then started to work, possibly part-time, until the last child left home or became independent, at which time she shifted to a full-time career (Santrock, 1999, p. 448).

What is the role and importance of leisure activities?

As adults, not only must we learn how to work well, but we also need to learn how to relax and enjoy leisure. Leisure refers to the times after work when individuals are free to pursue activities and interests of their own choosing – hobbies, sports, or reading, for example. Ninety years ago, the average work week was 72 hours. Only in the last three to four decades has it averaged 40 hours. What do most of us do now that we have more free time than at the beginning of the century? One of the basic themes of research on leisure is the increasing reliance on television over other forms of mass media as a form of entertainment. Sports are also an integral part of the nation’s leisure activities, either through direct participation or as a spectator (Santrock, 1999, p. 449).

7.3.8 Gender issues

This lesson considers issues related to gender: establishing roles and identities, career paths, parenting, relationships and lifespan.

Looking through the eyes of the developing person ...

Looking through the eyes of the systems of support ...

Lesson Objectives	What are the issues in establishing gender roles in adulthood? How do the adult stages of males and females compare in adulthood? What are the gender differences in terms of intimacy in marriage? How does gender affect lifespan and life expectancy?
Suggested Instructional Strategies Direct Independent Interactive Indirect Experiential	Discussion: “Women are second-class citizens”. From the feminist perspective women have been treated as second-class citizens. What evidence can you find to support this claim? Is society male-based and dominated? How would society be different if the situation was reversed? Media Study: Television, movies and gender “Movies for guys who like movies” versus “Chick-flicks”. - What are the stereotypical attitudes represented in these labels? - What are the central themes or focus of these movies? What are the gender differences in television programs and movies? Why are there such gender differences? How are men and women portrayed in the media, television, movies or magazines? Construction: Create your own magazine Create your own magazine on any topic or issue of interest to you in developmental psychology. Consensus decision making: Paid maternity and paternity leave Engage the students in a consensus decision making exercise that considers the question of paid maternity and paternity leave. Discussion: Gender and longevity Why do women live so much longer, on average? Research: Gender differences in personality Design and conduct a research study to compare personality traits and characteristics between males and females. For what criteria are the genders similar? In what ways are they different? How would you explain the similarities? How would you explain the differences? Discussion: Gender differences in personality Read the Curriculum Support Material, Gender Differences. Do you agree or disagree with the author’s description of the basic personalities of males and females? How does the author’s description compare with the results of your research? How do you account for any discrepancies?
Resources	Curriculum Support Materials: Gender Differences

Lesson 7.3.8: Teacher Information

What are the issues in establishing gender roles in adulthood?

Generativity versus stagnation is the crisis of the middle years. Now that you know who you are and have an intimate relationship, will you sink into complacency and selfishness, or will you experience generativity, the pleasure of creativity and renewal? Parenthood is the most common means for the successful resolution of this stage, but people can be productive, creative and nurturant in other ways, in their work or their relationships with the younger generation. For many North American adults, however, the greatest tension occurs between two types of generativity: parenthood versus achievement. Especially for women, the demands of children and career often pull in different directions. Devotion to a job may lead to guilt about depriving children of attention; too much emphasis on home life may impair productivity at work. This stressful balancing act may lead to anxiety, frustration and conflicts at home and on the job. Most women though, are more satisfied if they work. They like the respect, the independence, the stimulation and the companionship that working often provides (Bernstein and Nash, 1997, p. 369).

How do the adult stages of males and females compare in adulthood?

Women apparently follow stages similar to those for men. As children, women are taught different values, goals, and approaches towards life, which often are reflected later in their choice of vocations, hobbies and intellectual pursuits. Historically, women have followed different career paths than men. More recently, women are increasingly entering areas previously dominated by men.

The developmental course of women, and especially of women's transitions, is similar to that of men; but some women tend to experience transitions and life events at later ages and in more irregular sequences. In addition, women experience events such as mid-life transitions differently than men. While some men approach a mid-life crisis at age 40 as a last chance to hold onto their youth, many women see it as a time to reassess, refocus and revitalize their creative energies. At 50, many women become suddenly aware of their aging due to physical changes in their body - especially declining fertility - and this creates a different type of transition.

In a major study of women's transitions, Mercer, Nichols and Doyle (1989) identified a developmental progression for women. They considered especially the role of motherhood and how it influences the life course of women. In the launch into adulthood era (ages 16 to 25), women break away from families to go to school, marry and work. In the leveling era (ages 25 to 30), many women readjust their life course, this is often a time for marriage, separation or divorce. In the liberation era (ages 36 to 40), women focus on their aspirations, grow personally, and may initiate or change careers. Mercer and colleagues did not find major transitions for women in the years from age 40 to 60; they found greater flux and crises in earlier and later years. In the regeneration/redirection era (ages 61 to 65), women, like men, adjust to their life choices and prepare for retirement and a more leisurely lifestyle. These two latter stages (liberation and regeneration) are times of great empowerment for women, when growth, regrowth and purpose are often redefined and reinforced, resulting in a true sense of contentment. In the last stage of life, the creativity/destructiveness era (age 65 and on) women are challenged to adapt to health changes and the loss of spouses and friends; this time may also be characterized by a surge of creativity, or sometimes, depression (Lefton et al., 2000, p. 390).

Daniel Levinson and his colleagues (1978) claim to have discovered a pattern common to most men's lives. Instead of proceeding smoothly, their lives were characterized by several years of stability punctuated by crises. The crises were periods during which the men began to question their life structures: their occupations, their relations with their families, their religious beliefs and practices, their ethnic identities, and the ways they spent their leisure time. During times of transition - which caused considerable anxiety and turmoil - the men re-evaluated the choices they had made and eventually settled on new patterns that guided them through another period of stability. Periods of transition lasted around four or five years, whereas the intervening periods of stability lasted six or seven years.

For Levinson, the most important crises occur early in adulthood, when choices must be made about career and marriage, and at mid-life (during the early to mid-forties), when realities about one's life structure must be finally faced. Men whose life structures do not yet meet their prior goals and expectations realize that the future will probably not bring the success that up until then has eluded them. Men who have succeeded begin to question whether the goals they had set for themselves were meaningful and worthwhile (Buskist et al., 1997, p. 409).

Levinson et al.'s research was carried out on men, and no women were included in the sample. Similar research investigating women has found similarities with Levinson's findings. However, men and women have been shown to differ in terms of their dreams:

Men have fairly unified visions of their futures which tend to be focused on their careers. Women, however, have “dreams” which are more likely to be split between a career and a marriage.
Roberts and Newton (1987) saw the family as playing a supportive role for men. Women's dreams were constructed around their relationship with their husband and family, which subordinated their personal needs. So, part of her dream is his success (Gross and McIlveen, 1998, p. 424).

What are the gender differences in terms of intimacy in marriage?

Wives consistently disclose more to their partners than husbands do. And women tend to express more tenderness, fear and sadness than their partners. A common complaint expressed by women in a marriage is that their husbands do not care about their emotional lives and do not express their own thoughts and feelings. Men frequently respond either that they are open or that they do not understand what their wives want from them. It is not unusual for men to protest that that no matter how much they talk it is not enough for their wives. Women also say that they want more warmth as well as openness from their husbands. Overall, women are more expressive and affectionate than men in marriage, and this difference bothers many women (Santrock, 1999, p. 421).

How does gender affect lifespan and life expectancy?

Although a much greater percentage of persons live to an older age, the lifespan has remained virtually unchanged since the beginning of recorded history. Lifespan is the upper boundary of life, the maximum number of years an individual can live. The maximum lifespan of human beings is approximately 120 years. Life expectancy is the number of years that will probably be lived by the average person born in a particular year. Improvements in medicine, nutrition, exercise and lifestyle have increased our life expectancy an average of 30 additional years since 1900. The life expectancy of individuals born today is 77 years (80 for women, 73 for men). The world’s population of individuals 65 years or older doubled from 1950 to 1990. And the fastest-growing age segment of the population is individuals 85 years and older, who now number almost four million.

Beginning at the age of 25, females outnumber males; this gap widens during the remainder of the adult years. By the time adults are 75 years of age, more than 61 percent of the population is female; for those 85 and older, the figure is almost 70 percent female. The sex difference in longevity is influenced by biological factors. In virtually all species, females outlive males. Women have more resistance to infections and degenerative diseases (Santrock, 1999, p. 8).

7.3.9 Retirement

Retirement, while obviously not a concept that most adolescents consider, is nonetheless a critical issue and concern for adults in the late stages of adulthood.

Looking through the eyes of the developing person ...

Looking through the eyes of the systems of support ...

Lesson Objectives

What are the different phases experienced during retirement?

Should there be a mandatory retirement age?

What are the issues and challenges facing seniors considering retirement?

Suggested Instructional Strategies

Direct

Independent

Interactive

Indirect

Experiential

Discussion: Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs and seniors.

How does Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy relate to adult development?

Do you ever stop in the process of reaching self-actualization?

Discussion: Mandatory retirement

Given the levels of a variety of types of intelligence that seniors possess, should there be a mandatory retirement age? What impact might this have on young people entering the workforce?

Research: Retirement

What do retired people think about retirement?

Are the phases of retirement universal or are there individual differences?

Should there be a mandatory retirement age?

Is the old age pension sufficient?

What are the challenges and issues in retirement?

Media Study: Cocoon

What were the issues for the senior citizens tempted with the promise of “eternal life”?

From both perspectives: Mandatory retirement

Invite the students to write down all of the reasons they can in support of, and against, mandatory retirement.

Making Connections

Ageism

Educational programs for seniors

Resources

Media: Cocoon

Lesson 7.3.9: Teacher Information

What are the different phases experienced during retirement?

Retirement is a process and social role which unfolds through a series of six phases, each of which requires an adjustment. The phases do not correspond with any particular chronological age, occur in no fixed order, and not all of them are necessarily experienced by everyone:

Preretirement phase: In the remote subphase, retirement is seen as being in a reasonably distant future; the near subphase may be initiated by the retirement of older friends and colleagues and there may be much anxiety about lifestyle changes, especially financial ones.
Honeymoon phase: This phase typically involves euphoria, partly due to new-found freedom, and is often a busy period.
Disenchantment phase: This involves a slowing down after the honeymoon phase, with feelings of being let down and even depression. The degree of disenchantment is related to declining health and finances. Disenchantment may be produced by unrealistic preretirement fantasies or inadequate preparation for retirement.
Reorientation phase: This is a time to develop a more realistic view of life alternatives, and may involve exploring new avenues of involvement, sometimes with the help of community groups (e.g., special voluntary or paid jobs for the retired). This helps to decrease feelings of role loss and is a means of self-actualization.
Stability phase: This involves the establishment of criteria for making choices, allowing people to deal with life in a fairly comfortable and orderly way. They know what is expected of them, what their strengths and weaknesses are, allowing mastery of the retirement role.
Termination phase: Illness and disability usually make housework and self-care difficult or impossible, leading to the assumption of a sick or disabled (as opposed to a retirement) role (Gross and McIlveen, 1998, p. 428).

7.4 Looking through the eyes of the systems of support

This lesson considers the critical importance of the family and peers in terms of their support and influence on adults. Students are invited to engage their parents or guardians in discussion to compare and contrast their unique situation to those of families across Canada.

Looking through the eyes of the developing person ...

Looking through the eyes of the systems of support ...

Lesson Objectives	What are heredity and genetics? How are traits passed from one generation to the next? What is genetic engineering? How do doctors test for genetic disorders? What are the ethical and moral issues involved in genetic engineering? How can we test the morality of our decisions?
Suggested Instructional Strategies Direct Independent Interactive Indirect Experiential	Discussion/Research: Strengths in families: Accentuating the positive Based on the Portraits of Families in Canada: 1996 census summary, discuss the implications of the substantial rise in common-law and single-parent families, and the increasing number of stepfamilies. What are the characteristics of healthy and well functioning families? What are the issues, challenges, advantages and drawbacks of one-parent, step- and same-sex parent families? Discussion: The Family Life Cycle Using the table provided in the Curriculum Support Materials, discuss the key principles and issues at each stage of the family life cycle. Construction: Family Tree Create your own family tree through research into your family’s genealogy. Trace the origin of your family name. Interview: Your grandparents (or great-grandparents) for their recollections about your family history. Discussion: Culture and parenting, raising a family Based on the Ages and Stages article, Parenting and Child Rearing from a Cross-cultural Perspective, discuss how culture influences family arrangements, economics, roles and processes. Reflection: Parenting and influence Refer to the Curriculum Support Materials, When you thought I wasn’t looking and Memorandum from your child, and reflect on parental influence from the perspective of the child.
Resources	Ages and Stages: Parenting and Child Rearing from a Cross-cultural Perspective Ages and Stages : Strengths in families: Accentuating the positive Curriculum Support Materials: The Family Life Cycle Curriculum Support Materials: When you thought I wasn’t looking Curriculum Support Materials: Memorandum from your child

Lesson 7.4: Teacher Information

How do we define a family?

Family is defined as any combination of two or more persons who are bound together over time by ties of mutual consent, birth and/or adoption/placement and who, together, assume responsibilities for variant combinations of some of the following:

physical maintenance and care of group members
addition of new members through procreation or adoption
socialization of children
social control of children
production, consumption and distribution of goods and services
affective nurturance – love (Schlesinger, 1998, p. 3).

What are the functions of families?

As the Vanier Institute of the Family definition indicates, families perform vital functions for society and for their members. Society as we know it would be simply unimaginable without them. Researcher Shirley Zimmerman (1988) has listed six basic functions of families that demonstrate how important and far-reaching these functions are:

Physical maintenance and care of family members. Within healthy families, children, adults and seniors all receive the care and support they need: food, shelter, clothing, protection and so on. Where families are not available or are unable to provide these services, family members suffer and substitutes, usually inadequate ones, must be found.
Addition of new members through procreation or adoption and their relinquishment when mature. Society renews itself through families. For this function, there is, literally, no substitute.
Socialization of children for adult roles. Families prepare their children for life. Most do a fairly good job of it, teaching skills, values and attitudes that equip them to learn, work, form friendships and contribute to society.
Social control of members . . . the maintenance of order within the family and groups external to it. Within families, individuals learn positive values and behaviour and receive criticism for negative ones.
Maintenance of family morale and motivation to ensure task performance both within family and in other groups. In this regard, families provide the glue that holds society together and keeps it functioning. Beyond providing mere social control, families, through love and spiritual leadership, inspire their members and others to keep trying.
Production and consumption of goods and services. Families provide for their own by producing goods and services like food, home maintenance and health care. As they strive to fulfil the needs of their members, they play a vital role in the national economy (Schlesinger, 1998, p. 3).

What are the characteristics of strong and healthy families?

Strong families:

work for the well-being or defend the unity and continuity of their families
support each other in their families
respect each family member for his/her uniqueness and difference
spend time together to build family cohesion
delegate responsibility
allow children to make mistakes and face the consequences
contribute to the well-being of their neighbourhood, city, country or world
have a spiritual orientation or a spiritual dimension (which may not be the same as religiosity) (Schlesinger, 1998, p. 10).

What is the family life cycle?

As we go through life, we are at different points on the family life cycle. The stages of the family life cycle include leaving home and becoming a single adult, the joining of families through marriage, becoming parents and a family with children, the family with adolescents, the family at mid-life, and the family in later life.

Leaving home and becoming a single adult involves the process in which youths move into adulthood and exit their family of origin. This is a time for the young adult to formulate personal life goals, to develop an identity, and to become more independent before joining with another person to form a new family.
The new couple stage involves two individuals from separate families uniting to form a new family system. Marriage is usually described as the union of two individuals, but in reality it is the union of two entire family systems and the development of a new, third system. Some experts on marriage and the family believe that marriage represents such a different phenomenon for women and men that we need to speak of “her” marriage and “his” marriage.
Becoming parents and a family with children is the third stage. Moving through this lengthy stage successfully requires a commitment of time as a parent, understanding the roles of parents, and adapting to developmental changes in children.
The family with adolescents, the fourth stage, is a period of development in which adolescents push for autonomy and seek to develop their own identity. A flexible, adaptive approach to parenting is best at this stage.
The family at mid-life is a time of launching children, playing an important role in linking generations, and adapting to mid-life changes in development. Because of the lower birth rate and longer life of most adults, parents now launch their children about 20 years before retirement, which frees many mid-life parents to pursue other activities.
The family in later life is one in which retirement alters a couple’s lifestyle, requiring adaptation. Grandparenting also characterizes many families in this stage (Santrock, 1999, p. 417).

What are the different parenting styles?

Diana Baumrind (1971) emphasizes three styles of parenting that are associated with different aspects of the child's socioemotional development:

Authoritarian parenting is a restrictive, punitive style in which the parents exhort the child to follow their directions and to respect work and effort. The authoritarian parent places firm limits and controls on the child and allows little verbal exchange. Authoritarian parenting is associated with children’s social incompetence.
Authoritative parenting encourages children to be independent but still places limits and controls on their actions. Extensive verbal give-and-take is allowed, and parents are warm and nurturant toward the child. Authoritative parenting is associated with children's social competence.
Neglectful parenting is a style in which the parent is uninvolved in the child's life. It is associated with children's social incompetence, especially a lack of self-control.
Indulgent parenting is a style of parenting in which the parents are highly involved with their children but place few demands or controls on them. Indulgent parenting is associated with children's social incompetence, especially a lack of self-control (Gross and McIlveen, 1998, p. 347).

What is the national census data on Canadian families’ and children's living arrangements?

There were 7.8 million families in Canada in 1996, according to the Statistics Canada definition of a census family. At the time of the 1996 census, 45 out of every 100 families were married couples with children. This represented a decline from 1991, when the number was 52 out of every hundred. Couples without children accounted for 35 percent of all families. This group, which remained a steady proportion over the last decade of the twentieth century, included both the parents of children who have grown up and left home, as well as couples who have not had children.

Looking at the different kinds of families over time in terms of each group's proportion of all families, families with children living at home made up 65 percent of all families. This was a reduction of five percent over the last quarter of a century. The proportion of those families with children with two parents decreased from 87 percent to 78 percent. At the same time, the proportion of lone parent families increased from 14 percent of all families raising children to 22 percent. Common-law couples with children accounted for an increasing proportion of all families, rising to six percent in 1996.

Looking at Canada's 7.8 million census families again, without reference to whether the adults were married, common-law or lone parents, 5.1 million families or 65 percent had never-married children living at home. Significantly, this percentage has not changed since 1991.

The proportion of people living in families declined somewhat over the 90s. Partly, this was because people chose to wait longer before living together or getting married. There was also a larger proportion of separated, divorced or widowed people no longer living as part of a census family.

At the 1996, 9.7 million Canadian children and young people under the age of 25 lived in families. Of the nearly 10 million Canadians under the age of 25, 8.6 million were children who lived in a two-parent or lone-parent family. More than seven out of ten lived in families with two legally married parents, about one in ten lived with a common-law couple, and almost two out of ten lived with one parent, usually the mother.

The remaining 1.1 million young Canadians lived in other situations that are difficult to count. Approximately 491 000 of the older ones were themselves married or living common-law, and some were lone parents. Some were divorced, and had moved back in to their parental home. Another 297 000 were living with non-relatives at the time of the 1996 census. About 121 000 were young adults living on their own.

The picture of the family circumstances of children and young people is a snapshot at century end. Over the last thirty years, Canada has seen increased rates of separation and divorce, the declining popularity of marriage, a growing number of common-law unions, an increasing recognition of same-sex couples, and more blended families. These changes have resulted in more complex lives for many children who will grow up in a number of different family environments during their childhood and adolescence. The variety within families means that young people are growing up among peers whose family lives often differ markedly from their own (Schlesinger, 1998, p. 3)

What are the effects of maltreatment of children?

The more we learn about child maltreatment, the more we see that its causes are many and its consequences extend far beyond any immediate injury or deprivation. Compared to well-cared-for children, chronically abused and neglected children tend to be underweight, slower to talk, less able to concentrate, and delayed in academic growth. Deficits are even more apparent in social skills: maltreated children tend to regard other children and adults as hostile and exploitative, and hence they are less friendly, more aggressive, and more isolated than other children. The longer their abuse continues, and the earlier it started, the worse their relationships with peers are. As adolescents and adults, those who were severely maltreated in childhood (physically or emotionally) often use drugs or alcohol to numb their emotions, choose unsupportive relationships, sabotage their own careers, eat too much or too little, and generally engage in self-destructive behaviour (Berger, 2000, p. 258).

Are mistreated children likely to be become mistreating parents?

Many people erroneously believe that the intergenerational transmission of maltreatment - that is, maltreated children becoming adults who abuse or neglect their own children - is automatic and unalterable. On the basis of longitudinal research studies that begin before abused individuals become parents, experts estimate that that between 30 and 40 percent of abused children actually become child abusers themselves. This rate is many times that of the general population, but it shows that more than half of all severely mistreated children do not become abusive or neglectful parents (Berger, 2000, p. 259).

How vulnerable are families to crisis and mistreatment of children?

Vulnerable-to-crisis families are generally adequate-caregiving families that are pushed over the edge by immediate stressful problems. The loss of a job, for example, or the birth of a handicapped infant can severely strain most parents' ability to cope with the normal demands and frustrations of child rearing. About one-fourth of all families are vulnerable-to-crisis. Usually, they realize they have a problem, and this makes them receptive to services such as crisis counseling and parent training. Once the parents learn to cope with their specific problem more effectively they are again able to provide adequate child rearing.

Restorable families make up about half of all families. The caregivers in restorable families have the potential to provide adequate care, and perhaps have done so in the past, but a number of problems - caused not only by their immediate situations but also by their past histories and their temperaments - impair their parenting abilities. A single mother, for example, might have untreated medical problems, inadequate housing, and poor job skills, all of which fray her quick temper and cause her to explode just as her father did when she was a disobedient child. Treatment for restorable families requires a caseworker who has the time and commitment to become a family advocate, mediating and coordinating various services. The goal is not just child protection but family support, emotional as well as material. With such intense help, restorable families eventually become successful ones.

Supportable families make up about one-fifth of all maltreating families. They probably will never function adequately and independently, but with continual support they might meet their children's basic needs for physical, educational and emotional care. The support might be as simple as daily home visits by a nurse or housekeeper or as involved as moving the entire family to a special residence that provides ongoing medical attention, daycare, recreation, social work and group therapy.

Inadequate families constitute nearly 10 percent of maltreating families. They are so impaired by deep emotional problems or serious cognitive deficiencies that the parents or other caregivers will never be able to meet the needs of their children. For children born into these families, long term adoption, beginning with foster care in infancy, is the best solution (Berger, 2000, pp. 261-262).

What influence does culture have on families?

There have been very few studies of successful families from various ethnic groups. One of the best was done by Douglas Abbott and William Meredith (1988), who compared Caucasian, African American, Mexican American, Hmong, and Native American families. The researchers asked these families to rank various family traits that were derived from earlier studies of successful families. The most agreement across ethnic groups was among the Caucasian, African American, and Mexican American families. The Hmong differed the most from all the other families; their greatest difference was with the Caucasian families. Native American families were somewhat similar to African American and Mexican American families but different from Hmong families. Nevertheless, they were surprised to find generally more agreement than disagreement across the various ethnic groups, although they also identified some important differences. The findings, in order of importance, include:

Communicates and listens
Trusting and trustworthy
Is affirming and supportive
Teaches a sense of right and wrong
Teaches respect for others
Shares leisure time
Is responsible for family welfare
Has a sense of play and humour
Respects privacy of family members
Shares religious beliefs
Has two parents living at home
Values family traditions
Seeks help with problems
Encourages individuality
Financial security
Has a base of parental rules
Respects elders
Shares similar values
Allows for negotiation of family rules
Values a college education
Prays together (Schlesinger, 1998, p. 14).

This summary lesson will integrate all of the concepts covered in this unit, by actively engaging students in the design and conduct of research in developmental psychology.

Time elapsed	Physical response
20 minutes	Blood pressure drops to normal. Pulse rate drops to normal. Body temperature of hands and feet returns to normal.
8 hours	Carbon monoxide level in blood drops to normal. Oxygen level in blood increases.
24 hours	Chance of heart attack decreases.
48 hours	Nerve endings start regrowing. Ability to smell and taste is enhanced.
2 weeks to 3 months	Circulation improves. Walking becomes easier. Lung function increases by up to 30 percent.
1 to 9 months	Coughing, sinus congestion, fatigue, shortness of breath decrease. Cilia regrow in lungs, increasing ability to handle mucus, clean the lungs, reduce infection. Body's overall energy increases.
1 year	Excess risk of coronary heart disease is half that of a smoker.
5 years	Lung cancer death rate for average former smoker (one pack a day) decreases by almost half. Stroke risk is reduced to that of a non-smoker 5-15 years after quitting. Risk of cancer of the throat, mouth and esophagus is half that of a smoker's.
10 years	Lung cancer death rate similar to that of non-smoker's. Precancerous cells are replaced. Risk of cancer of the mouth, throat, esophagus, bladder, pancreas and kidney decreases.
15 years	Risk of coronary heart disease is that of a non-smoker.

Stressors	Stress mediators	Stress reactions
Life changes and strains Catastrophic events Daily hassles Chronic stressors	Cognitive appraisal Predictability Sense of control Coping resources and methods Social support Personality	Physical Emotional Cognitive Behavioural
Source: (Bernstein and Nash, 1999, p. 380)

Category	Examples

Physical strategies	Relaxation
	Meditation
	Massage
	Exercise

Problem-oriented strategies	Reduce negative emotions
	Problem-focused coping

Cognitive strategies	Reappraising the problem
	Learning from the problem
	Making social comparisons
	Cultivating a sense of humour

Social strategies	Relying on friends and family
	Helping others (Tavris and Wade, 2000, p. 567).

Type of Research	Suggested Research Topics
Survey Conducting research using a survey involves going out and asking questions about the phenomenon of interest.	What does it take to stay young in today’s society? At what age are you “old”? Should retirement be mandatory at a certain age? If so, at what age? How would you describe or define intimacy? What is beauty? What is love? What leisure activities do you engage in? What qualities do you admire in a friend? Spouse? Partner? What attracts you to the opposite sex? Moral dilemmas: Is it right to steal life-saving medicines that could save the life of a family member? Is it right to tell the police if you know that a friend has committed a crime? If you found a large sum of money in an unmarked envelope, should you keep it? Do you support euthanasia? What qualities do you admire in a leader? Do you believe in God? Heaven? Hell? Life after death? Who are your heroes? If you could be anyone in the world, who would you be?
Naturalistic Observation In naturalistic research, the observer does not intervene at all. For all intents and purposes, the researcher is invisible and works hard not to interrupt the natural dynamics of the situation being investigated.	How did you develop your parenting skills and styles? What are the differences between adult males and females? What are adult’s television programming preferences? How do adults cope with stressful situations? How are senior citizens defined and described? How are senior citizens represented in the media?
Interview The interview method of research, typically, involves a face-to-face meeting in which a researcher (interviewer) asks an individual a series of questions.	What is it like to be an adult? What are your perspectives on spirituality and religion? What stereotypes do you face in society? What are the issues and challenges you face as an adult? What are the stressors in your life? What resiliency/coping skills have you developed? What was it like to be 18 when you were young? Why did you choose your career? As a senior, what are the issues and challenges you face in retirement? What parenting styles and strategies do your parents use in raising teeenagers? What does it take to make a marriage work? What are the rules in your (married, personal, career, business, social, family) relationships? What are your views on spirituality and religion and how they have developed? What influences you the most? What values do most respect? How did your values and beliefs develop? What were the greatest influences on your values and belief system? How has the role of women changed in society? What are the greatest issues, challenges and benefits of being an adult? What guiding principles do you live by?
Experimental Research Experimental researchers take care to create an environment in which they can make causal statements. They manipulate variables, randomly assign participants to various conditions, and seek to control other influences that could affect their research.	How do viral infections and exchanging bodily fluids threaten our health?
Topical A topical research study involves the acquisition, synthesis, organization, and presentation of information. Typically, the topical research study will involve both paper based as well as web-based resources. Additional information may be gained through the other research methods and strategies.	Research one of the following topics: Entrance requirements for post-secondary education Your family’s genealogy The Canadian Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms
Case Study A case study is an intensive study of one individual. Typically, the case study is based on interviews with the subject regarding his or her background, present thinking or actions; it may also utilize interviews of others who know the individual. Additional case study material may be obtained through observation, experiments, and standardized tests such as personality inventories and intelligence tests.	Research one of the following topics: Historial leaders and their leadership qualities and skills Social activists Renownded artists (art, sculpture, music, dance, theatre, film) Renowned writers, poets, composers Renowned political leaders Renowned inventors

Unit Seven: Adulthood

Concept Web

Unit Overview

Learning Objectives

Lessons and Lesson Objectives

Resources and Resource-Based Learning

Lesson 7.5: Suggested Research Topics and Methods

Type of Research