Concept Web
Looking through the eyes of the developing person …
Looking through the eyes of the systems of support …
Unit Overview
We begin our inquiry into the nature of the developmental process by considering the many issues in the creation and prenatal development of a human being. Using our conceptual organizers of the relative influences of nature and the environment, as well as the interaction of the biological, cognitive and socioemotional domains of development, we examine the process of developmental change from the perspective of the fetus. Then, using Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Model as the conceptual organizer, we consider the developmental process from the perspective of the systems of support that promote and nurture healthy development.
Unit Objectives
Knowledge
- To understand the issues and challenges in becoming a parent.
- To understand the biological changes from conception to birth.
- To understand the cognitive changes from conception to birth.
- To understand the socioemotional changes from conception to birth.
- To understand the issues, challenges and support systems from the perspective of microsystems, exosystems, and macrosystems of support.
Skills
- To organize and integrate new knowledge and understandings by making connections with existing knowledge and understandings.
- To organize and integrate new knowledge and understandings within the discipline of psychology.
- To organize and integrate new knowledge and understandings with other disciplines.
- To apply those concepts and understandings in a variety of practical, pertinent and contemporary issues.
Values
- To appreciate the complex, dynamic, reciprocal, and personal aspects of human development across the lifespan.
Lessons and Lesson Objectives
- 2.1 Unit Overview: Developmental changes from conception to birth
- What roles do nature and nurture play in the development of a fetus?
- How do the various domains influence development during the prenatal development stage?
- What are the sociocultural influences on prenatal development?
- 2.2 Issues and challenges in becoming a parent
- What are the issues and challenges in becoming a parent?
- What do you need to know before deciding to have a child?
- 2.3 Looking through the eyes of the fetus, what do you see?
- What is the process of biological development from conception to birth?
- What is the process of cognitive development from conception to birth?
- What is the process of socioemotional development from conception to birth?
- 2.4 What is the process of biological development from conception to birth?
- What role does heredity and genetics play in determining human development?
- What is the process of development during the three stages of prenatal development?
- What are the critical periods in prenatal development?
2.4.1 Heredity and genetics- What are heredity and genetics?
- How are traits passed from one generation to the next?
- What is genetic engineering?
- How do doctors test for genetic disorders?
- What are the ethical and moral issues involved in genetic engineering?
- How can we test the morality of our decisions?
2.4.2 The stages of prenatal development
- 2.5 What is the process of cognitive development from conception to birth?
- What is the process of development of the nervous system and the brain?
- What is the process of development of the sensory and perceptual systems?
- 2.6 What is the process of socioemotional development from conception to birth?
- What socioemotional development takes place before birth?
- What do temperament and personality mean?
- What are the basic temperaments of newborn babies?
- 2.7 What is the process of labour and delivery?
- What are the stages of birth?
- What are the strategies used in childbirth?
- What are some of the complications that can arise in labour and delivery?
- What is the father's role in the labour and delivery process?
- 2.8 Looking through the eyes of the systems of supports, what do you see?
- What influence does the microsystem have on prenatal development?
- What influence does the exosystem have on prenatal development?
- What influence does the macrosystem have on prenatal development?
- 2.9 What new reproductive technologies exist for creating life?
- How do scientists genetically engineer a human being?
- What are some alternative methods of conception?
- 2.10 What are the prenatal influences and issues for healthy development?
- What are some influences that have a negative impact on healthy prenatal development?
- What are the factors that influence the degree of affect?
- 2.11 Action research in prenatal development
- When does a fetus become a person?
- Should cloning of human organs be allowed?
- Should mothers receive full maternity benefits from conception until one year past delivery?
- Should expectant mothers be paid a nutritional allowance?
- Should genetic information be made available to employers and insurance agencies?
- Should we encourage the development of genetic engineering to produce "designer babies"?
- Should people be allowed to sell their own organs?
- What happens during labour and delivery?
- What are the types and amounts of teratogens in your house?
- Before you were born, were you an active baby, quiet baby? What was your basic temperament as a newborn child?
- What are the effects of smoking and alcohol on prenatal development?
- What prenatal programs are available in your community?
- What do they teach in prenatal classes for expecting parents?
- Who is Francis Collins?
- Who is J. Craig Venter?
- What is Spina bifida?
- What is Cystic fibrosis?
- What is PKU?
- What is Down Syndrome?
- What is Fetal alcohol syndrome?
- 2.12 Lifespan approach to prenatal development
- How is prenatal development described from the perspective of the lifespan approach?
- How do the key issues and questions in developmental psychology relate to prenatal development?
- How would each of the six theoretical perspectives on human development explain prenatal development
Resources and Resource-Based Learning
Resource-based learning is an integral part of all units. The accompanying bibliography will assist you in incorporating a variety of resources from different media into each unit. This annotated bibliography should be available from your teacher librarian. It is available from Saskatchewan Learning through the website at www.sasked.gov.sk.ca/ or from the Learning Resources Distribution Centre at 306-787-5987. The bibliography contains annotations of current, useful resources including print, video, Internet sites, and other media selections. Teachers are encouraged to assess their current resource collection, identify those resources that are still useful, and acquire small quantities of each new title, rather than class sets, in order to provide students with a broad range of perspectives and information.
The following list of evaluated resource titles provides a starting point for developing a resource collection that is current and relevant, and that addresses students' various learning styles and abilities. Please refer to the bibliography for a complete list of resources giving the full citation, annotation, and ordering information. Please note that many of these resources can be ordered through the Learning Resources Distribution Centre (http://lrdc.sasked.gov.sk.ca/). Videos may be available from Media Group (http://www.sasked.gov.sk.ca/video). At the time of publication all of the resources listed here and in the bibliography were in print and available.
Please note that LRDC will be closing effective March 31, 2003. If you need assistance acquiring Saskatchewan Learning materials after that date, please contact 787-5987.
Print Resources
A to Z of Child Development: From Birth to Five Years
Child Development
Internet Sites
The following sites provide a brief overview of what is available. These sites were checked for availability in March 2002. To access sites that have been formally evaluated and linked to the curriculum visit the Evergreen Curriculum at the Saskatchewan Learning website - http://www.sasked.gov.sk.ca/docs/evergrn.html.
Baby Centre - http://www.babycenter.com/
Safe Motherhood - http://www.safemotherhood.org
Saskatchewan Institute on Prevention of Handicaps - http://www.preventioninstitute.sk.ca
2.1 Unit Overview: Human development from conception to birth
This introductory lesson provides an overview of prenatal development from the perspectives of the developing fetus and the systems of support.
Lesson 2.1: Teacher Information
What roles do nature and nurture play in the development of a fetus?
Both genes and environment are necessary for a person to exist. Without genes, there is no person; without environment, there is no person (Scarr and Weinberg, 1980). Heredity and environment operate together, or cooperate, to produce a person’s intelligence, temperament, height, weight, abilities, and so on. The emerging view is that many complex behaviours likely have some genetic loading that gives people a propensity for a particular developmental trajectory. But the actual development requires more - an environment. And that environment is complex, just like the mixture of genes we inherit. Environmental influences range from the things we lump together under “nurture” (such as parenting, family dynamics, schooling, and neighbourhood quality) to biological encounters (such as viruses, birth complications, and even biological events in cells) (Santrock, 1999, p. 83).
How do the various domains influence development during the prenatal development stage?
Physical Development:
- The germinal period is the first two weeks of development. This period is characterized by rapid cell division, the beginning of cell differentiation, and implantation of the blastocyst into the uterine wall. By approximately one week after conception, the zygote is composed of 100 to 150 cells. The differentiation of cells commences and the zygote becomes differentiated into two layers: The blastocyst is the inner layer of cells that later develop into the embryo; the trophoblast is the outer layers of cells that later provides nutrition and support for the embryo. Implantation of the zygote into the uterine wall takes place about 10 days after conception (Santrock, 1999, p. 103).
- The embryonic period is the period of prenatal development that occurs from two to eight weeks after conception. The embryo's endoderm, the inner layer or cells, primarily produces internal body parts such as the respiratory and digestive systems. The middle layer of cells, called the mesoderm, will become the circulatory system, bones, muscle, excretory system, and reproductive system. The outer layer of cells, the ectoderm, will become the nervous system, the sensory receptors (eyes, nose, ears), and skin. As the embryo develops so too does the placenta, the umbilical cord and the amnion (fluid-filled sac) (Santrock, 1999, p. 103).
- The fetal period is the period of development that begins two months after conception and lasts for seven months, on the average. Three months after conception the fetus is 10 centimetres long and weighs approximately 60 grams. It has become active, moving its arms and legs, opening and closing its mouth, and moving its head. The face, forehead, eyelids, nose, and chin are all distinguishable, as are the arms, hands and legs. At four months, a growth spurt occurs in the fetus' lower parts. By the end of the fifth month the toenails and fingernails have formed and the fetus is more active. By the end of the sixth month the eyes and eyelids have completely formed, a grasping reflex is present and irregular breathing occurs. In the last two months, fatty tissues develop and the functioning of various organs such as the heart and kidneys steps up (Santrock, 1999, p. 103).
Cognitive Development:
- Some simple aspects of the functioning of the human nervous system appear very early. Indeed the blood circulation system and the nervous system are the first to function in embryonic life, with heartbeat commencing in the third week following conception. By the second month, an avoidance reaction, the withdrawal of the hand region by contraction of the neck muscles, occurs if an unpleasant stimulus is applied to the embryonic upper lip. These developments imply that simple arc reflexes are already differentiated at this stage, with appropriate synaptic connections and interneuronal activity being brought into play in order to coordinate muscular movements (Rose, 1989, p. 192).
Temperament/Personality Development:
- Every individual is born with a distinct, genetically-based set of psychological tendencies, or dispositions. These tendencies, which together are called temperament, affect and shape virtually every aspect of the individual's developing personality. Temperament, and therefore personality, is not merely genetic: it begins in the multitude of genetic instructions that guide the development of the brain and then is affected by the prenatal environment (Berger, 2000, p. 219).
2.2 Issues and challenges in becoming a parent
This lesson addresses, through the use of role play and simulation, the variety of issues and challenges to be faced in making a conscious decision to become a parent.
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Lesson 2.2: Teacher Information
What are the issues and challenges in becoming a parent?
Direct students to interview their parents or other parents in their family or community to discuss the many financial, emotional, career, societal, and familial issues and challenges in becoming a parent. These issues can be incorporated into the role play activity and can form the basis for the students application to the National Procreation Council.
What do you need to know before deciding to have a child?
These questions will direct you toward a better understanding of the demands of parenting and the skills you will need to be successful. Exploring these questions in depth (try writing your answers out) may help you:
- uncover surprising information about yourself
- provide a reality check about who you are and where you are in life
- weed out underlying assumptions that may not be useful
- dentify changes you can make that can help prepare you for parenting, if that's the path you choose.
Your expectations
- Do you currently spend time with children? Do you enjoy it? (Whether you answer yes or no does not predict how you will feel about your own children, but giving some thought to the issue can highlight some of your assumptions and attitudes about life with children.)
- With what ages of children are you particularly comfortable? What age do you gravitate toward? (If you are not comfortable with a particular age group, it may hint at issues in your own childhood that need resolving. Also, addressing this question is a good reality check: parenthood is permanent and you can not just raise your kids during the “fun” years.)
- What are your thoughts on the responsibilities and commitment of parenthood? (This question is just a way to help you reflect on the demands of parenting and whether you are comfortable with them.)
- How do you cope with stress? Is your reaction to stress something you would want your child to witness? How did you learn that method of coping? (Research shows that your level of stress can affect your children and your ability to parent effectively. If you feel you do not have a good handle on managing your stress, now is a great time to start learning some new coping mechanisms.)
- What are your hopes about being a parent? What if these hopes are not met? (Parenthood is not all shared hugs and fits of giggling. There will be tough times and disappointments and your children may not be what you expect. This is a good reality check question.)
- What are your fears? What if your fears are met? (You cannot work out your fears in advance. Aspects of parenting are frightening – it is a big responsibility. But it can help to voice your fears and examine them now.)
- How much like your own parents do you want to be? How different do you want to be? (Our own parents are the best models we have for raising children. Some of their lessons are positive and others negative. Examine your life with your parents and think about what you can learn from their triumphs and shortcomings.)
- As a child, what messages did you get about what a parent is supposed to be? (This is another question that can help you examine your expectations of parenthood and weed out underlying assumptions that may not be useful.)
Your family history
- These questions can help you access blocked feelings that may be clouding your decision-making process. Often unresolved, possibly unrecognized, grief from earlier losses stands in the way of making big decisions, such as whether to become a parent.
- What did you enjoy about being a child? What did you not enjoy? (If you are having trouble deciding whether you want children it may have something to do with unresolved issues from your own childhood.)
- What did you appreciate about the parenting you received? What did not go well? (Our own parents teach us many lessons, both positive and negative. Think about what you would like to emulate from your own childhood and what you would like to change.)
- Was one of your parents (or other family members) gravely ill during your childhood? Did one or both die? Have you effectively grieved this loss?
Your values
This set of questions will help you pinpoint the personal attitudes and values you will bring to the role of parent. It will also help identify differences that may exist between you and your partner (if you have one). A discussion with a classmate could help to clarify your perspective.
- What would you like to pass on that you got from your parents? What would you not like to pass on? (This question helps you hone in on and verbalize what you think is important to bring to the role of parent).
- What are your priorities for your children? For example, do you want them all to have a college education? What values do you want to instill in them? (We all come to parenthood with a set of expectations, often unspoken. This question helps you clarify your hopes and dreams for your children.)
- What are your thoughts about disciplining children? Check with your partner or classmate and compare (This is an area where partners often disagree. Talking about these issues now would not prevent future problems, but it will give you a chance to talk about setting limits and how you might go about doing so.)
Your life and how it could change
Answering these questions will give you insight into the practical realities of your situation, which you should consider before becoming a parent.
- Talk to people who have decided not to have children; talk to people who have decided to have children. How does what they tell you make you feel? (We are not suggesting that you base your decision on what others say but hearing friends and relatives talk about their own parenthood choices can raise new issues for you to consider.)
- What does your support system look like? (We are not saying you need a whole village to raise your child but a few people to lean on can really help. Childrearing is difficult to do on your own. Do you have a partner or family and friends nearby that you can look to for assistance? This is not a prerequisite for parenthood, but it is a wonderful addition.)
- What do you do when you have free time? What will you do when you do not have any free time? (This is one of the practical realities of parenthood. You will never again be able to do whatever you want, whenever you want, without considering the effect on your children. They will and should become your number one priority – are you ready for that?)
- How do you think your life will change? (This is a given). Your life will change irrevocably. Most parents say it is for the better, but the effect on your time, energy, wishes, and desires can be enormous. Take a moment now to think seriously about the new life you are considering (Source: Women Central).
2.3 Looking Through the Eyes of the Fetus
This overview lesson considers the biological, cognitive and socioemotional aspects of prenatal development.
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Lesson 2.3: Teacher Information
What is the process of biological development from conception to birth?
Refer to Lesson 2.1 Unit Overview: Human development from conception to birth, for information regarding the three stages of prenatal development.
What is the process of cognitive development from conception to birth?
Some simple aspects of the functioning of the human nervous system appear very early. Indeed the blood circulation system and the nervous system are the first to function in embryonic life, with heartbeat commencing in the third week following conception. By the second month, an avoidance reaction, the withdrawal of the hand region by contraction of the neck muscles, occurs if an unpleasant stimulus is applied to the embryonic upper lip. These developments imply that simple arc reflexes are already differentiated at this stage, with appropriate synaptic connections and interneuronal activity being brought into play in order to coordinate muscular movements (Rose, 1989, p. 192).
What is the process of socioemotional development from conception to birth?
The fetus is no passive passenger in the womb, nor is the woman simply “carrying” the fetus (Kisilevsky and Low, 1998). Development is interactive even before birth. Research suggests that, at least in some ways, fetuses prepare more than just their reflexes and organ systems for physiological functioning after birth: they also begin to accustom themselves to the particulars of the social world that they soon will join. Meanwhile, mothers begin to identify features of their future offspring: almost all pregnant women, by the last trimester are talking to, patting, and dreaming about their long-awaited child (Berger, 2000, p. 106).
2.4 Prenatal Development: Physical Domain
This lesson presents an overview of the biological development from conception to birth. If further study is required, the topics of heredity and the developmental process through the three stages are explored as sub-topics.
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Lesson 2.4: Teacher Information
What role does heredity and genetics play in determining human development?
The basic characteristics of an individual are established at conception; these include the colour of the hair, skin, and eyes; the gender; the likelihood that the person will be tall or short, fat or lean; and perhaps basic intellectual abilities and personality traits (Lefton et al., 2000, p. 39).
Although the genetic influence exerts its power by keeping organisms on a a particular developmental path, genes alone do not directly determine human behaviour. For example, hormones that circulate in the blood make their way into the cell, where they influence the cell’s activity. The flow of hormones themselves can be affected by environmental events, such as light, day length, nutrition and behaviour (Santrock, 1999, p. 74).
What is the process of development during the three stages of prenatal development?
Refer to Lesson 2.1 Unit Overview: Human development from conception to birth, for information regarding the three stages of prenatal development.
What are the critical periods in prenatal development? Source: Fetal Development (1999)
| Body System |
Especially Sensitive |
Development up to … |
| Central nervous system/Brain |
4th to 8th weeks |
Postnatal, through to adulthood |
| Heart |
5th to 9th weeks |
12th week |
| Upper limbs |
6th to 10th weeks |
12th week |
| Eyes |
6th to 10 weeks |
Term |
| Lower limbs |
6th to 10th weeks |
12th week |
| Teeth |
9th to 11th weeks |
Term |
| Palate |
9th to 11th weeks |
16th week |
| External genitalia |
9th to 11th weeks |
Term |
| Ears |
6th to 11th weeks |
13th week |
This lesson describes the basic concepts involved in heredity and genetics – and then applies that knowledge in leading students to consider some of the fundamental issues surrounding genetic engineering.
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Lesson 2.4.1: Teacher Information
What is heredity and genetics?
Heredity is the process of transmitting biological traits from parent to offspring through genes, the basic units of heredity. Heredity also refers to the inherited characteristics of an individual including traits such as height, eye colour, and blood type. Genetics is the study of how heredity works and, in particular, of genes. A gene is a section of a long deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) molecule and it carries information for the construction of a protein or part of a protein. Through the diversity of proteins they code for, genes influence or determine such traits as eye colour, the ability of a bacterium to eat a certain sugar, or the number of peas in a pod. A virus has as few as a dozen genes. A simple roundworm has 5 000 to 8 000 genes, while a corn plant has 60 000. The construction of a human requires an estimated 50 000 genes. If the DNA in a single human cell could be unraveled, it would form a single thread about 1.5 metres long and about 100 trillionths of a centimetre thick (Lefton et al., 2000, p. 39).
How are traits passed from one generation to the next?
Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes. In each pair, one chromosome comes from the mother and the other from the father. Twenty-two of the pairs are the same in both men and women and these are called autosomes. The twenty-third pair consists of the sex chromosomes, so called because they are the primary factor in determining the gender of a child. The sex chromosomes are known as the X and Y chromosomes. Females have two X chromosomes and males have one X and one Y chromosome. The Y chromosome is about one-third the size of the X chromosome. A sperm, the reproductive cell produced by the male, can carry either one X or one Y chromosome. An egg, the reproductive cell produced by the female, can carry only the X chromosome. When a sperm with an X chromosome unites with an egg the result is a child with two X chromosomes, a female. When a sperm with a Y chromosome unites with an egg, however, the result is a child with one X and one Y chromosome, a male. Thus, the father determines the gender of the child (Baron et al., 1998, p. 74).
What is genetic engineering?
Genetic engineering is the alteration of an organism's genetic instructions through the insertion of additional genes. In humans genetic engineering involves adding normal genes, either directly via a blood transfusion or bone marrow transplant or directly into a cluster of cells, thereby enabling the body to replace ailing cells with healthy ones. The technique is being used experimentally for hemophilia, cystic fibrosis, rheumatoid arthritis, several types of cancer, and dozens of rare diseases (Berger, 2000, p. 95).
How do doctors test for genetic disorders?
Scientists have developed a number of tests to determine whether the fetus is developing normally:
- Amniocentesis is a prenatal medical procedure performed between the 12th and 16th weeks of pregnancy in which a sample of amniotic fluid is withdrawn by syringe. It is tested to discover if the fetus is suffering from any chromosomal or metabolic disorders.
- Ultrasound sonography is a prenatal medical procedure in which high frequency sound waves are directed into the pregnant woman’s abdomen. The echo from the sounds is transformed into a visual representation of the fetus’s inner structures.
- The chorionic villus test is a prenatal medical procedure in which a small sample of the placenta is removed at some point between the 8th and the 11th week of pregnancy.
- The maternal blood test (alpha-fetaprotein test) is a prenatal diagnostic technique that is used to assess neural tube defects. This test is administered to women 14 to 20 weeks into pregnancy only when they are at risk for bearing a child with defects in the formation of the brain and spinal cord (Santrock, 1999, p. 72).
What are the ethical and moral issues involved in genetic engineering?
Gene mapping and genetic engineering create some dilemmas. Do people want to know about their genetic defects even though these defects cannot be corrected? When the issues are genetic screening and abortion, ethical values often clash with practicality and parental rights. Do parents want to bring to term a child that will have a severe disorder? One country has already instituted a policy about such disorders. In 1993, China had a program of abortions, forced sterilization, and marriage bans to avoid new births of “inferior quality” infants and raise the standards of their country. Worries abound that the information housed in people’s genes will be used to their detriment. A drop of blood or a lock of hair contains all of the genetic information a potential employer or insurer would need to determine whether someone is at risk of contracting any of a long list of debilitating diseases. Ethical dilemmas will increase in the next decade as scientists on the Human Genome Project continue to make headway in mapping out human genes (Santrock, 1999, p. 74).
Some experts get nervous about genetic technology for other reasons. One is genetic screening. This can be done today for some conditions and it will become more commonplace in the near future. Careful study of a sample of DNA can reveal how likely a person is to succumb to certain illnesses. Where the moral dilemma creeps in is whether anybody else should know, and this applies to all genetic screening. Another concern is the possibility of creating “designer babies.” Today, when a sperm and an egg unite, chance plays a major role in how the life thus created will turn out. The embryo will get half its genes from its mother and half from its father. Whether it inherits its father's tallness or its mother's blue eyes pretty much depends on a roll of the dice. But genetic engineering holds within it the promise of overcoming the random nature of heredity (Taylor, 2000, p. 7).
How can we test the morality of our decisions?
In our daily lives, we must make choices that involve questions of honesty, the treatment of other people, acting responsibly, etc. These are moral choices because they are about right and wrong. Moral choices are choices between what might be good for us personally and what would be good for others. We may want to do one thing, but we have doubts about whether we are doing the right thing. When a situation is morally doubtful we have to have some basis for deciding what to do. Should an individualistic, personal point of view be taken? Should one always be “nice” and make sure that everyone else is satisfied? When should individuals look out for themselves and when should they be concerned about others?
Applying Moral Tests to Everyday Situations
| The Situation or Issue |
The New Cases Test |
The Role Exchange Test |
The Universal Consequences Test |
| Should you be angry over receiving a ticket for jaywalking near your home? |
What if you were caught jaywalking on a busy freeway in a large city?
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How would you feel if the police showed up with your two-year-old brother or sister who had been jaywalking?
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What if everyone jaywalked in your neighbourhood?
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| Should scientists be allowed to clone human genetic material such as organs for transplant? |
How would this work in another situation such as cloning to produce "designer babies"? |
What if everyone had access to cloned organs? Who would control or manage the use of cloned organs? |
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| Should people have the right to buy and sell their own organs? |
How would this work in another situation such as …. |
How would you feel if you had a life-saving need for an organ such as a kidney? |
What if everyone …. |
| An insurance company refuses you insurance because a genetic defect has appeared. |
How would this work in another situation such as …. |
How would you feel if you were the employer? |
What if everyone …. |
2.4.2 The stages of prenatal development
This overview lesson focuses on the physical development of the fetus from the moment of conception through the germinal, embryonic and fetal stages, to birth.
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Lesson 2.4.2: Teacher Information
How delicate is the developing life form?
Fifty-eight percent of all developing organisms fail to grow or implant properly and thus do not survive the germinal period. Most of these organisms were grossly abnormal. During the embryonic time all the major external and internal body structures begin to form. About 20 percent of all embryos are aborted spontaneously, most often because of chromosomal abnormalities. About 5 percent of all fetuses are aborted spontaneously before viability at 22 weeks or are stillborn after 22 weeks (Berger, 2000, p. 100).
What are the factors that contribute to low birth weight?
Poverty
- Compared with women of higher socioeconomic status, pregnant women at the bottom of the economic ladder are more likely to be ill, malnourished, teenaged, and stressed. They often receive late or inadequate prenatal care, breathe polluted air, live in overcrowded conditions, move from place to place and ingest unhealthy substances. Poor women have less access to family planning services, and they live in communities that encourage higher birth rates, partly because these communities have higher death rates. In this way, the social context may underlie many of the biological causes of low birth weight.
Malnutrition
- Women who begin pregnancy underweight, eat poorly during pregnancy, and consequently do not gain at least 1.5 kilograms per month in the second and third trimesters run a much higher risk of having low birth weight babies. Research indicates that obese women should gain seven to 11 kilograms during pregnancy; normal-weight women 11 to 16 kilograms; and underweight women even more. Beyond overall weight, certain nutrients defend against low birth weight, including zinc, iron, and folic acid. Indeed, malnutrition (not age) is the primary reason young teenagers tend to have small babies. They tend to eat sporadically and unhealthily, and because their own bodies are still developing their diet is inadequate to support the growth of two.
Preterm birth
- The fetal body weight doubles in the last months of pregnancy with a typical weight gain of almost two pounds (about 900 grams) occurring in the final three weeks. Thus if a baby is born preterm, defined as three or more weeks before the usual 38 weeks, he or she is usually of low birth weight (Berger, 2000, pp. 116-122).
Why are some babies born prematurely?
Conditions that disrupt the physiological equilibrium of the mother can cause premature birth. These conditions include:
- a high dose of psychoactive drugs
- extreme stress
- chronic exhaustion
- detached placenta
- a uterus that cannot accommodate further fetal growth
- unusually short cervix
- infection (Berger, 2000, p. 117).
What are some common genetic conditions that can be detected during prenatal development?
Common genetic conditions may include club foot, cleft palate/lip, cystic fibrosis, spina bifida, PKU, haemophilia, hydrocephalus, and muscular dystrophy.
2.5 Prenatal Development: Cognitive domain
This lesson examines the cognitive development of the fetus, specifically the nervous system, the sensory and perceptual abilities, and the brain.
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Lesson 2.5: Teacher Information
What is the process of development of the nervous system and the brain?
Brain development in the prenatal stage is amazing. Fetal brain cells are generated at about 250,000 per minute. It is most likely that infants will have all the neurons they are going to ever have in their life at the time of birth.
The next stage of neuron development is cell migration. In this stage neurons move from near the center of the brain, which is where they are produced, to their appropriate locations. The process of cell migration is completed seven months after conception.
The third stage of neuron development is concerned with cell elaboration. During this stage axons and dendrites grow and form connections with other cells. Cell elaboration continues for many years after birth .
Another process that begins prenatally and continues after birth, is myelination. This is a process in which nerve cells are covered and insulated with a layer of fat cells. Myelination increases the speed of information which travels through the nervous system.
The nervous system starts to form as a hollow tube on the embryo back. The brain forms into a large mass of neurons and loses the tubular appearance. Three major divisions in the brain form. These are:
- Hindbrain - located at the lowest portion of the brain; controls motor development
- Midbrain - located between the hind and forebrain; relaying information to eyes and ears.
- Forebrain - large part of the brain; plays the most critical role in thinking and language.
Most neurons are produced between 10 and 26 weeks after conception (Mesa Community College Department of Psychology).
What is the process of development of the sensory and perceptual systems?
The fetus is no passive passenger in the womb, nor is the woman simply “carrying” the fetus (Kisilevsky and Low, 1998). Development is interactive even before birth. Beyond the physiological interdependence, fetus and adult have a much more intellectual brain-based interaction. Beginning at about nine weeks, the fetus moves its body in response to shifts in the woman’s body position with imperceptible movements of tiny heels, fists, elbows and buttocks. Indeed, many parents-to-be, fathers as well as mothers, enjoy rubbing the woman’s rippling belly. The fetus feels and responds to such stimulation, beginning what may become a life-long pattern of communication by touch (Berger, 2000, p. 106).
2.6 Prenatal Development: Socioemotional domain
This lesson explores the socioemotional development of the fetus in terms of basic temperaments and the importance of establishing contact between the parents and the fetus.
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Lesson 2.6: Teacher Information
What socioemotional development takes place before birth?
Refer to Lesson 2.5, Prenatal Development: Cognitive domain, for information on the development of the sensory and perceptual systems in relation to socioemotional development of the fetus.
What do temperament and personality mean?
Researchers who study adult personality have also searched for the basic temperamental dimensions that underlie personality in humans everywhere. Through a series of statistical calculations they have found what are called the “big five” dimensions of temperament:
- extroversion: the tendency to be outgoing, assertive, and active
- agreeableness: the tendency to be kind, helpful, and easygoing
- conscientiousness: the tendency to be organized, deliberate, and conforming
- neuroticism: the tendency to be anxious, moody, and self-punishing
- openness: the tendency to be imaginative, curious, artistic and welcoming of new experiences (Berger, 2000, p. 221).
What are the basic temperaments of newborn babies?
Because temperament is fundamental in determining the kind of individuals we become and how we interact with others, many researchers have set out to describe and measure the various dimensions of temperament. According to the researcher's initial findings, in the first days and months of life, babies differ in nine characteristics:
- Activity level: Some babies are active. They kick a lot in the uterus before they are born, they move around a great deal in their bassinets and as toddlers, they are nearly always running.
- Rhythmicity: Some babies have regular cycles of activity. They eat, sleep, and defecate on schedule almost from birth.
- Approach-withdrawal: Some babies delight in everything new; others withdraw from every new situation.
- Adaptability: Some babies adjust quickly to change. Others are unhappy at every disruption of their normal routine.
- Threshold of responsiveness: Some babies seem to sense every sight, sound and touch. For instance, they awaken at a slight noise or turn away from a distant light. Others seem blissfully unaware, even of bright lights, loud street noises, or wet diapers.
- Quality of mood: Some babies seem constantly happy, smiling at almost everything. Others seem chronically unhappy, they are ready to protest at any moment.
- Distractibility: All babies fuss when they are hungry but some will stop if someone gives them a pacifier or sings them a song. Others will keep fussing. Similarly, some babies can easily be distracted from a fascinating but dangerous object and diverted to a safer plaything. Others are more single-minded, refusing to be distracted.
- Attention span: Some babies play happily with one toy for a long time. Others quickly drop one activity for another.
In terms of combinations of the above characteristics, most young infants can be described as being one of three types: about 40 percent are easy, about 15 percent are slow to warm up, and about 10 percent are difficult (Berger, 2000, p. 220).
This lesson describes the stages of labour and delivery, the strategies used in childbirth and some of the complications which might arise in giving birth.
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Lesson 2.7: Teacher Information
What are the stages of birth?
The birth process occurs in three stages:
- For a woman having her first child, the first stage, the longest, lasts an average of 12 to 24 hours. Uterine contractions are 15 to 20 minutes apart at the beginning and last up to a minute. These contractions cause the woman’s cervix to stretch and open. As the first stage progresses, the contractions come closer together appearing every two to five minutes. Their intensity increases too. By the end of the first birth stage these contractions dilate the cervix to an opening of about 8 to 10 centimetres. This allows the baby to move from the uterus to the birth canal.
- The second stage begins when the baby’s head starts to move through the cervix and the birth canal. It terminates when the baby completely emerges from the mother’s body. This stage lasts approximately 1.5 hours. With each contraction the mother bears down hard to push the baby out of her body. By the time the baby’s head is out of the mother’s body the contractions come almost every minute and last for about a minute.
- Afterbirth is the third stage, at which time the placenta, umbilical cord, and other membranes are detached and expelled. This final stage is the shortest of the three birth stages lasting only minutes (Santrock, 1999, p. 104).
What are the strategies used in childbirth?
In the standard childbirth procedure the expectant mother is taken to a hospital where a doctor is responsible for the baby’s delivery.
The Leboyer method intends to make the birth process less stressful for infants. Leboyer vehemently objects to holding newborns upside down and slapping them, putting silver nitrate in their eyes, separating them immediately from their mothers, and scaring them with bright lights and harsh noises in the delivery room. In the Leboyer method the baby is placed on the mother’s stomach immediately after birth so the mother can caress the infant. Then the infant is placed in a bath of warm water to relax.
The Lamaze method has become a widely used childbirth strategy. It involves helping the expectant mother to cope actively with the pain of childbirth through relaxation and breathing techniques and to avoid or reduce medication.
A caesarian section is the surgical removal of the baby from the uterus. A caesarian section is usually performed if the baby is in a breech position, if it is lying crosswise in the uterus, if the baby’s head is too large to pass through the mother’s pelvis, if the baby develops complications, or if the mother is bleeding vaginally (Santrock, 1999, p. 106).
What are some of the complications that can arise in labour and delivery?
Complications can accompany the baby’s delivery:
- Precipitate delivery is a form of delivery that takes place too rapidly. A precipitate delivery is one in which the baby takes less than 10 minutes to be squeezed through the birth canal. This deviation in delivery can disturb the infant’s normal flow of blood and the pressure on the infant’s head can cause hemorrhaging.
- Anoxia is insufficient supply of oxygen to the infant and can develop if the delivery takes too long. Anoxia can cause brain damage.
- The breech position is the baby’s position in the uterus that causes the buttocks to be the first part to emerge from the vagina. Normally the crown of the baby’s head comes first (Santrock, 1999, p. 105).
What is the father’s role in the labour and delivery process?
- See Ages and Stages “Labour and Delivery” for more information on the father’s role in labour and delivery.
2.8 Looking through the eyes of the support systems ...
In this overview lesson, we will use the Ecological model of Bronfenbrenner (1979) to describe the various degrees and types of influence that the systems of support have on prenatal development.
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Lesson 2.8: Teacher Information
What influence does the microsystem have on prenatal development?
In terms of the mother's role in promoting healthy development, research suggests five proactive steps:
- Abstinence from alcohol, drugs, and tobacco even before pregnancy.
- Abstinence after the first trimester: The teratogenic effects of drugs accumulate throughout pregnancy. Thus, early prenatal care would reduce fetal brain damage substantially. In fact, because the last trimester of pregnancy is critical for brain development, a drug-free second half of pregnancy may be enough to prevent brain damage if drug use during the first half was moderate.
- Moderation throughout pregnancy: Since the prenatal effects of psychoactive drugs are dose related, interactive and cumulative, each dose that is reduced, each drug that is eliminated, and each day that is drug free, represents a reduction in the damage that can be caused.
- Social support: Maternal stress, psychological problems, loneliness, and poor housing correlate with prenatal complications as well as with drug use. Befriending, encouraging, and assisting pregnant drug users may not only reduce their use of teratogens but also, even without directly affecting drug use, aid fetal development.
- Postnatal care: Another way to protect children from suffering the consequences of their mother's prenatal drug use is to ensure sensitive nurturance after birth through parenting education, preventive medicine, home visits, early daycare and if necessary, foster care (Berger, 2000, p. 115).
What influence does the exosystem have on prenatal development?
What role does the community play in the healthy development of the fetus?
- Discuss with the students the services available through the various health agencies, the support services provided by neighbours and friends, and the impact that various communities can have on human development.
- What role does the school play in the healthy development of the fetus?
- What role should the school play in the education of adolescents as regards conception, pregnancy, and accessing health services?
- Do schools have a role to play in assuring access to education for teenage mothers? If so, what should that role be? Who should finance it?
- What role do the health agencies play in the healthy development of the fetus?
- What services are available in your community?
- Who would you contact for resources, programs, services, or resource people?
- What are the differences between urban and rural health care systems?
What influence does the macrosystem have on prenatal development?
Compared with women of higher socioeconomic status, pregnant women at the bottom of the economic ladder are more likely to be ill, malnourished, teenaged, and stressed. They often receive late or inadequate prenatal care, breathe polluted air, live in overcrowded conditions, move from place to place and ingest unhealthy substances. Poor women have less access to family planning services, and they live in communities that encourage higher birth rates, partly because these communities have higher death rates. In this way, the social context may underlie many of the biological causes of low birth weight (Berger, 2000, p. 120).
This lesson addresses the variety of means of creating human life through the use of technology, as well as a consideration of the ethical and moral issues that arise from genetic engineering.
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Lesson 2.9: Teacher Information
How do scientists genetically engineer a human being?
The questions get even more troubling when we confront the possibility of creating “designer babies.” Germ-line manipulation is the scientific term for this and it is done soon after an egg has been fertilized. It involves taking the very early embryonic cells apart to see what the genetic lottery has delivered to them (This process destroys the cells and puts new focus on the question of when life begins.) Any genetic material that is seen as defective (presumably, the parents decide what is good and what is bad) can then be snipped out and replaced. At present, this is a very difficult trick to pull off, but it will become easier and more accurate (Taylor, 2000, p. 8).
What are some alternative methods of conception?
In vitro fertilization (IVF): In this procedure, ova are surgically removed from the ovaries, fertilized by sperm in the laboratory, and allowed to divide until the 16- or 32-cell stage. The resulting cells are then inserted into the uterus, where about one cell cluster in seven successfully implants, develops and becomes a healthy baby. The success rate is just under 20 percent (Berger, 2000, p. 73).
Gamete intrafallopian transfer (GIFT). A doctor inserts eggs and sperm directly into a woman’s fallopian tube. The success rate is almost 30 percent (Santrock, 1999, p. 69).
Intrauterine (artificial) insemination. Frozen sperm, from the husband or an unknown donor, is placed directly into the uterus, bypassing the cervix and upper vagina. The success rate is 10 percent (Santrock, 1999, p. 69).
Zygote intrafallopian transfer. This involves a two-step procedure. First, eggs are fertilized in the laboratory. Then, any resulting zygotes are transferred to a fallopian tube. The success rate is approximately 25 percent (Santrock, 1999, p. 69).
Intracytoplasmic sperm injection. A doctor uses a microscopic pipette to inject a single sperm from a man’s ejaculate into an egg. The zygote is returned to the woman’s body. The success rate is approximately 25 percent (Santrock, 1999, p. 69).
Ovum donation has two possibilities: In one version, a woman volunteers to be a surrogate mother; usually she is artificially inseminated with sperm from an infertile woman’s husband and carries the baby to term. In another version, some of a donor woman’s ova are removed and artificially inseminated with a man’s sperm; then the cluster of cells is inserted into his own wife’s uterus (Berger, 2000, p. 73).
2.10 What are the prenatal influences and issues for healthy development?
Teratogens are those factors that impact negatively on the healthy development of the fetus. This lesson explores the broad range of substances and conditions that can have a negative impact on prenatal development.
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Lesson 2.10: Teacher Information
What are some influences that can have a negative impact on healthy prenatal development?
Harmful substances such as drugs or radiation that invade the womb and result in birth defects are called teratogens. Teratogens are especially damaging in the embryonic stage because it is a critical period in prenatal development. Later, during the fetal stage, the environment provided by the mother affects the baby’s size, behaviour, intelligence and health, rather than the formation of organs and limbs (Bernstein and Nash, 1999, p. 333).
- Radiation, chemicals, and other hazards in the environment can endanger the fetus. Chromosomal abnormalities are higher among the offspring of fathers exposed to high levels of radiation in their occupations. Environmental pollutants and toxic wastes are also sources of danger to unborn children. Among the dangerous pollutants and wastes are carbon monoxide, mercury and lead. Another environmental concern is toxoplasmosis, a mild infection that causes cold-like symptoms or no apparent illness in adults, but can cause eye defects, brain defects, and premature birth. Cats are common carriers of toxoplasmosis, especially outdoor cats who eat raw meat. The expectant mother may pick up the virus through the cat litter box (Santrock, 1999, p. 100).
- Two time periods are of special interest: adolescence and the thirties and beyond. Infants born to adolescents are often premature. The mortality rate of infants born to adolescent mothers is double that of infants born to mothers in their twenties. Down Syndrome, a form of mental retardation, is related to the mother's age. By age 40, the probability is slightly over 1 in 100. By age 50, it is almost 1 in 10. The risk is also higher before age 18. Women also have more difficulty in becoming pregnant after the age of 30 (Santrock, 1999, p. 93).
- Another common reason for slow fetal growth, and hence low birth weight, is maternal malnutrition, a problem that has many specific causes. Women who begin pregnancy underweight, eat poorly during pregnancy, and consequently do not gain at least 1.5 kilograms per month in the second and third trimesters run a much higher risk than others of having a low birth weight infant. Indeed, women who gain less than seven kilograms, even if they are non-smokers who begin pregnancy overweight, still have a higher risk of preterm and smaller babies than those who gain at least seven kilograms (Berger, 2000, p. 119).
- Maternal diseases and infections can produce defects by crossing the placental barrier. For example, the greatest damage to the fetus from the mother contracting German measles occurs during the third and fourth weeks of pregnancy. Syphilis is more damaging later in prenatal development, four months or more after conception. Rather than affecting organ development as Rubella does, syphilis damages organs after they have formed. The importance of the mother's health to the health of her offspring is nowhere better exemplified than when the mother is infected with HIV (Santrock, 1999, p. 98).
- Drugs include tobacco, alcohol, prescription, or illegal drugs. For example, the effects of thalidomide during the fourth week of development had devastating effects. Heavy drinking by an expectant mother can also be devastating. Fetal alcohol syndrome is a cluster of abnormalities that appear in the offspring of mothers who drink alcohol heavily during pregnancy. The abnormalities include facial deformities and defective limbs, face and heart. Most of these children are below average in intelligence. In one study, however, even mothers who drank moderately during pregnancy had babies who were less attentive and alert, with the effects still present at four years of age. Cigarette smoking by pregnant women can also adversely influence prenatal development, birth and postnatal development. Fetal and neonatal deaths are higher among smoking mothers. Also prevalent are a higher incidence of preterm births and lower birth weights. Respiratory problems and sudden infant death syndrome are also more common among the offspring of mothers who smoked during pregnancy. Tranquilizers taken during the first three months may cause cleft palate or other congenital malformations. Mothers who take large amounts of barbituates may have babies who are addicted or may exhibit tremors, restlessness, and irritability (Santrock, 1999, p. 98).
Poverty
- Compared with women of higher socioeconomic status, pregnant women at the bottom of the economic ladder are more likely to be ill, malnourished, teenaged, and stressed. Physical difficulty like malfunction of the placenta or the umbilical cord is likely when pregnancies are closely spaced and close spacing correlates with poverty. Poverty helps explain the wide national and international variations in the following statistics:
- Of the more than 25 million low birth weight infants born worldwide each year the overwhelming majority are in developing countries.
- Developing countries in the same geographic region, with similar ethnic populations, have markedly different low birth weight rates when they have different average incomes.
- Within nations, differences in low birth weight rates among ethnic groups follow socioeconomic differences among those groups.
- Within the United States low birth weight rates in the poorest states are almost twice those in some richer states (Berger, 2000, p. 120).
- The mother's stress can be transmitted to the fetus. When a pregnant woman experiences intense fears, anxieties, and other emotions, physiological changes occur in the fetus. These include changes in respiration and glandular secretions. For example, producing adrenaline in response to fear restricts blood flow to the uterine area and may deprive the fetus of adequate oxygen. Also, reassuring the mother of fetal well-being has positive outcomes for the infants in the study (Santrock, 1999, p. 93).
What are the factors that influence the degree of affect?
One crucial factor is the time at which the developing organism is exposed to a specific teratogen. Some teratogens cause damage only during specific days or weeks early in pregnancy, when a particular part of the body is being formed. Others can be harmful at any time, but how severe the damage is depends on when the exposure occurred. The time of greatest susceptibility is called the critical period. Each body structure has its own critical period. As a general rule, for physical defects the critical period is the entire prenatal period.
A second important factor is the dose and/or frequency of exposure to a teratogen. For most teratogens, experts are reluctant to specify a threshold below which the substance is safe. One reason is that many teratogens have an interaction effect; that is, one poison intensifies the effects of another.
A third factor that determines whether a specific teratogen will be harmful, and to what extent, is the developing organism's genes. In some cases, genetic vulnerability is related to the sex of the developing organism. Generally, male embryos (XY) and fetuses are at a greater risk than female in that male embryos are more often aborted spontaneously. In addition, newborn boys have more birth defects, and older boys have more learning disabilities and other problems caused by behavioural teratogens (Berger, 2000, pp. 106-109).
2.11 Action research in prenatal development
This lesson provides for the practical application of the skills and concepts learned in this unit by engaging the students in action research.
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Lesson 2.11: Suggested Issues and Research Methods
| Type of Research |
Suggested Research Topics |
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| Naturalistic Observation
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| Interview
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| Topical
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| Case study
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2.12 Perspectives on prenatal development
This summary lesson looks at prenatal development from three different perspectives: the lifespan approach, the theoretical perspectives on human development, and the key issues and questions in human development.
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Lesson 2.12: Teacher Information
How is prenatal development described from the perspective of the lifespan approach?
The lifespan perspective on human development has seven basic characteristics. Development is:
- Life long
- No age period dominates development.
- Multi-dimensional
- Development consists of biological, cognitive, socioemotional and spiritual dimensions.
- Multidirectional
- Some aspects of development increase, while others decrease.
- Plastic
- Depending on the individual's life conditions, development may take many paths.
- Historically-embedded
- Development is influenced by historical conditions.
- Multidisciplinary
- Psychologists, sociologists, anthropologists, neuroscientists and medical researchers all study human development and share a concern for unlocking the mysteries of development throughout the lifespan.
- Contextual
- The individual continually responds to and acts on contexts, which include a person's biological makeup, physical environment, and social, historical, and cultural contexts (Santrock, 1999, p. 10).
How do the key issues and questions in developmental psychology relate to prenatal development?
From the time of its establishment, several key issues and questions have dominated the field of developmental psychology. Among these issues are the nature of developmental change, the importance of critical periods, lifespan approaches versus the more focused approaches, and the nature-nurture issue.
- Continuous change versus discontinuous change: In continuous change, developmental change is gradual, with achievements at one level building on those of previous levels. In contrast, discontinuous change occurs in distinct stages or steps. Each stage brings about behaviour that is assumed to be qualitatively different from behaviour at earlier stages.
- A critical period is a specific time during development when a particular event has its greatest consequences. Critical periods occur when the presence of certain kinds of environmental stimuli are necessary for development to proceed normally.
- Lifespan approaches versus a focus on a particular period: Developmentalists now believe the entire lifespan is important, for several reasons. One is the discovery that developmental growth and change continue during every part of life. Furthermore, to understand fully the social influences on people of a given age, we need to understand the people who are, in large measure, providing those influences. For instance, to understand development in infants, we need to unravel the effects of their parents’ ages on the social environment.
- Nature versus nurture: One of the enduring questions of development involves how much of people’s behaviour is due to their genetically-determined nature and how much is due to nurture, the physical and social environment in which a child is raised. In this context, nature refers to traits, abilities and capacities that are inherited from one’s parents. Nature encompasses any factor that is produced by the predetermined unfolding of genetic information - a process known as maturation. These genetic, inherited influences are at work as we move from the one-celled organism that is created at the moment of conception to the billions of cells that make up a fully-formed human being. In contrast nurture refers to the environmental influences that shape behaviour. Some of these influences may be biological, such as the impact of a pregnant mother’s substance abuse on the fetus, or the amount and kind of food available to children. Other environmental influences are more social, such as the ways parents discipline their children and the effects of peer pressure on adolescents (Feldman, 2000, p. 10).
How would each of the six theoretical perspectives explain prenatal development?
Lifespan development has produced a number of broad conceptual perspectives representing different approaches to development. Each broad perspective encompasses a number of theories, explanations and predictions concerning phenomena of interest. A theory provides a framework for understanding the relationships among an organized set of principles or facts. The six major theoretical perspectives include:
- Psychodynamic Perspective: Focusing on the inner person. Rooted in Freud’s theory, the psychodynamic approach maintains that all behaviour and mental processes reflect the constant and mostly unconscious psychological struggles that rage silently within each person. Usually, these struggles involve conflict between the impulse to satisfy instincts or wishes and the need to play by the rules in society. Anxiety, depression and other disorders are outward signs of this inner turmoil (Bernstein and Nash, 1999, p. 11).
- The Behavioural Perspective: Considering the outer person. As founded by John Watson, the behavioural approach views behaviour and mental processes as primarily the result of learning. Psychologists who take this approach see rewards and punishment acting on the raw materials provided by genes, evolution and biology to shape each individual. So, whether considering a person’s aggression or drug abuse, behaviourists would look at that person’s learning history. Since people learn problem behaviours, they can also learn to change or even prevent them by unlearning old habits and developing new ones (Bernstein and Nash, 1999, p. 11).
- The Cognitive Perspective: Examining the roots of understanding. The cognitive perspective focuses on how people take in, mentally represent and store information. Cognitive psychologists then relate perception and information processing to patterns of behaviour. They study such areas as decision-making, problem-solving, interpersonal attraction and intelligence. Aggression, for instance, might be viewed as a result of poor problem solving (Bernstein and Nash, 1999, p. 11).
- The Humanistic Perspective: Concentrating on the unique qualities of human beings. According to the humanistic approach, our capacity to choose how to think and act determines our behaviour. Each person’s unique perceptions – not instincts, cognitive processes, or rewards and punishments – dictate the choices made. Humanistic psychologists believe that people are essentially good, that they are in control of themselves, and that they seek to grow toward their highest potential (Bernstein and Nash, 1999, p. 12).
- The Evolutionary Perspective: Focusing on biology as the determinant of development. Darwin’s ideas on evolution and adaptation of species laid the foundation for the evolutionary approach. The evolutionary approach to psychology holds that the behaviour of animals and humans today is the result of evolution through natural selection. Psychologists who follow this approach are concerned with the adaptive value of behaviour, the anatomy and biology that make it possible and the environmental conditions that encourage or discourage it (Bernstein and Nash, 1999, p. 11).
- The Sociocultural Perspective: Emphasizing the systems of support. Calling attention to the external influences on human behaviour such as the physical surroundings and social interactions that provide incentives, opportunities and pathways for growth, Urie Bronfenbrenner (1979) began to emphasize the ecological apporach to the study of human development. In Bronfenbrenner’s application of this concept, human ecosystems include both the physical environment (the climate, the space per person, that arrangement of the dwelling) and the social environment (the people, the culture, the economy) (Berger, 2000, p. 4).
