Writing is a messy process. It is not linear; it is recursive, "a loop rather than a straight line", where the writer writes, then plans or revises, and then writes again (Emig, 1971). Teachers can help students write more effectively by getting them to examine their own creative processes. Although the process of writing is essentially idiosyncratic, writers usually work through a few basic phases. Students can be shown the different stages in the production of a piece of writing and be encouraged to discover what works best for them. Students can be shown the basic phases of the writing process: pre-writing, drafting, revising (editing and proofreading), and presenting. The "writing process is the thinking processes that go on during writing" (Crowhurst, 1988, p. 7).
| Pre-writing | Drafting | Revising--Editing and Proofreading | Presenting and Publishing |
Pre-writing centres on engaging students in the writing process and helps them discover what is important or true for them about any subject at any time. Unfortunately, no one has found the perfect system for teaching the writing process. What is certain, however, is that if students are to become capable writers they must develop pre-drafting skills. Experienced writers have their own methods, but inexperienced writers need motivation to write, and assistance in uncovering concepts, experiences, and ideas about which to write.
During the pre-writing phase, students need direction--a topic, or something to discuss in writing. Topics can come from teachers but students also need to develop the skill of using their own insights and experiences (and those of others) as writing material. Most often the potential of possible topics is revealed through pre-drafting experiences such as the following:
Writers must not only think about what they are going to say, but also how they are going to say it. During the pre-drafting stage students need to establish, at least tentatively, their purpose, audience, and form. Although experienced writers often say that content dictates form (that their ideas tell them which form to use), inexperienced writers need to realize that audience and purpose can help determine form. Students need to achieve competency in a variety of forms and consider a range of purposes and audiences such as the following.
Purposes
Audiences
Writing Forms
The ability to shape and organize ideas requires choosing a form that is appropriate to the audience and purpose. Students need experiences with a range of forms. Some examples include:
Through an appropriate balance of experiences with the previous purposes, audiences, and forms, students can become competent in a range of writing tasks.
As teachers plan their writing assignments, they should identify and define the appropriate learning objectives, address the elements of effective communication (subject, purpose, audience, and form), and establish guidelines or criteria to evaluate the outcome of the students' work.
Organizing and Developing Ideas
Writers not only need to think about what they are going to say but also about how they are going to say it. Pre-composing plans help students approach the blank page. Although these plans often change as students discover through writing itself what they want to say and how they want to say it, these plans are useful ways for students to get started (Olson, 1992).
During the pre-writing phase students should also give some attention to how they might organize and develop their thoughts. Although these plans will be tentative, they are useful for getting started.
Students need to organize their ideas in logical sequences. Several ways of developing and organizing ideas are possible depending on purpose and form. Several different ways of development and organization include:
Students could consider a map, a chart, an outline, a visual organizer, or a ladder technique to organize their main ideas and supporting details.
| Pre-writing | Drafting | Revising--Editing and Proofreading | Presenting and Publishing |
During this phase, writers produce a first draft. Momentum is the important issue as students focus their attention on the development of meaning and the flow of thought in their writing. The mechanics are secondary to the flow of ideas.
At this point, students should try to say what they mean quickly. Additional drafts can be written that further shape, organize, and clarify the work. As students mentally step back from their work, they can develop more objectivity and give more consideration to the reader. They should be encouraged to share drafts to confirm or adjust the direction of their writing.
During drafting, teachers should encourage students to:
| Pre-writing | Drafting | Revising--Editing and Proofreading | Presenting and Publishing |
Teachers should give students the language to discuss editing and proofreading as well as the strategies to reshape and polish their writing.
Revising strategies require time and practice; therefore, they are best introduced a few at a time. Different strategies may be required for different kinds of writing.
Useful student strategies for revising ideas and form include:
Pass 1: Edit for truth and accuracy (e.g., "Did the governor really say his opponent had a face like a ferret?" Why correct the spelling of ferret if you are going to drop the whole sentence anyway?).
Pass 2: Edit for organization (e.g., Is each paragraph appropriately placed?).
Pass 3: Edit for paragraph structure (e.g., Does each paragraph have a topic sentence?).
Pass 4: Edit for sentence structure (e.g., Does each sentence have a verb? Is there variation in sentence length?).
Pass 5: Edit for word choice (e.g., Have you used "less" when you mean "fewer"?).
Pass 6: Edit for spelling and punctuation.
Pass 7: Edit for conciseness and clarity (e.g., Is there anything that should be removed? Added?).
Proofreading involves reading for conventions rather than content. Proofreading and editing are not mutually exclusive. During the editing process, some proofreading may occur and during proofreading, further editing may occur. Proofreading is the process of checking a draft to make sure that the following conventions are correct and appropriate:
A checklist for students to refer to when revising follows.
Questions for Editing and Proofreading
Organization:
Voice/Tone/Flavour:
Word Choice:
Syntax/Sentences:
Writing Conventions:
(Spandel & Stiggins, 1990, p. 130. Used with permission of Addison-Wesley Educational Publishers Inc.)
With experience, most students can develop a personal revision checklist.
Conferences give students a second pair of eyes and ears. They can take numerous forms and the teacher does not always need to be directly involved. In fact, students should be encouraged to discuss their writing with their classmates. Students can meet with one or two classmates to ask for advice, share a piece of writing, or revise a composition.
In peer conferences students need to know how to maintain a helpful and supportive relationship. Alvermann and Phelps (1994) suggest that collaboration among student writers does not occur spontaneously. Teachers need to take a little time to model good responses and set some ground rules such as:
Students can be encouraged to use the PQP method of peer-response:
P (Praise) What do you like about my paper?
Q (Question) What questions do you have about my paper?
P (Polish) What specific improvements could I make? (Lyons, 1981, p. 42).
Peer conference guides such as the following can also be used.
Writer:
Discuss the following: 1. What I liked most: 2. The main idea seems to be: 3. Your organization is: 4. Questions I have are: 5. An idea to try is: 6. Additional comments: |
In any teacher-student conference, the key to success lies in asking questions that teach--questions that lead students to discover what they have to say and want to communicate and that encourage them to talk about the work. The teacher can, for example, ask:
How is it going?
Where are you now in your draft?
Can you tell me more about that?
Can you say more about ...?
What do you think you will do next?
Where do you want this piece to go?
If you put that idea in, where could it go?
(Graves, 1983, p. 245).
The value of revision is that students learn to "re-see" and rethink their writing. Ideally, students should go beyond being concerned with just the actual product of writing and become just as concerned with the process of producing it.
Writers learn to write by writing. The best way to introduce students to the process of writing is to involve them in the process. By preparing for composing, actually composing, and revising, students learn the phases of the writing process. The gains of a process approach to writing can only be realized if teachers have an understanding of the various roles they play in helping students to become more proficient writers. The teacher is no longer simply a setter and corrector of assignments. The teacher is a writer along with the students, as well as an instructor, responder, coach, diagnostician, and supporter.
Students need someone to encourage them, to support them during each phase of their writing, to read and respond to their writing, and to provide direct instruction in the mechanics of writing. While students focus on the writing process, the teacher provides appropriate support:
| Stage: | Writer's focus: | Teacher's focus: |
| Pre-writing | Exploring Ideas | Encouraging, Probing |
| Drafting | Developing Ideas | Suggesting |
| Revising | Clarifying, Revising Text | Questioning, Coaching |
| Presenting | Sharing Text | Responding |
Although the writing process need not be followed in its entirety with all pieces of writing, students should be given a rationale for using the process and should be shown how a writer can craft a composition. Graves (1983) recommends that teachers begin writing instruction by modelling the writing cycle and then continue by participating as writers themselves throughout the year. Some steps teachers might take in order to show students how to produce and craft a composition follow.
Students need varied writing experiences combined with direct instruction in context.
Mini-lessons (5-15 minutes) can be designed to help students learn "how to do" something (e.g., write an effective descriptive paragraph), or they can address a language concept needed for a task (e.g., how to write a concise sentence). These focused lessons can occur during any phase of the writing process. They can be taught to the whole class, to a small group, or to an individual.
A mini-lesson on writing an effective introduction, for example, might include the following information:
An introduction usually serves two purposes--it catches the reader's attention and it suggests or states the main idea of a paper. Stating your main idea in your introduction makes it easy for the reader to understand what you are trying to narrate, describe, explain, or prove. (Not every piece of writing, however, needs a formal introduction. Often narration begins in the middle of the action with an introduction that captures the reader's attention.)
Experienced writers often catch their reader's interest using one of the following methods.
Each opener presents a vivid but incomplete glimpse of what is to follow. The reader wants to read on to see the rest of the picture.
Many teachers use a Writer's Workshop approach that involves students in three types of activities:
The primary focus during each workshop class period is to provide students with blocks of times to write. The teacher serves as workshop facilitator who monitors and gives feedback to individual students and ensures that each student's progress is charted, that important skills are taught, and that conferencing with individual students and among peers occurs.
| Pre-writing | Drafting | Revising--Editing and Proofreading | Presenting and Publishing |
Writing involves sharing and presenting. "Publishing", in its broadest sense, means "making public" or sharing with others. Students should be given the opportunity to choose pieces of writing they wish presented. Any piece that the teacher might select for presentation should be the result of a discussion with the student and ultimately should be the student's choice. The possible audiences are numerous: shared reading, bulletin board, individual books, class/school/city newspapers, student anthologies, or literary contests. Having a wider audience often will lead students to take more care and pride in their writing.