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Implementing Science 10


To help all students learn, teachers need several kinds of knowledge about learning. According to Shulman (1986), that knowledge includes:
While it is beyond the scope of this curriculum to address all of these areas in depth, the following pages include information with respect to these topics as they relate specifically to Science 10.

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Grade 10: A Transition from Middle Level to Specific Disciplines


The structure of Science 10 is similar to elementary and middle years science in that each grade is comprised of units from the disciplines of life science, physical science, and earth science. For most students, this will be their last opportunity to participate in a science course that contains units from multiple disciplines. Teachers should recognize that the goal of Science 10 is more than simply to prepare students for the senior sciences, although most students will enrol in at least one of the senior sciences; some will enrol in three. Teachers need to engage students in authentic activities that are relevant for their students' current lives while addressing the foundational and learning objectives of Science 10.

This is also a transition year for many students, as they become more independent and wish to be more involved in decision making. They have developed more interests outside of school and have a need to connect their personal interests to their in-school learning. Students of this age are social beings and may be very concerned about their relationships with friends and classmates. Simultaneously, students may be undergoing growth spurts and bodily changes. As a result, students may be less comfortable in presenting in front of their peers. These students are also capable of increasingly abstract thought, and are striving to be more independent and autonomous. Teachers can capitalize on these changes by encouraging students to take more responsibility for their own learning and to relate their learning to their own lives.

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Instructional Strategies


Decision making regarding instructional strategies requires teachers to focus on curriculum objectives, the prior experiences and knowledge of students, student interests, student learning styles, and the developmental levels of the learner. Such decision making relies on linking ongoing student assessment to learning objectives and processes.

Although instructional strategies can be categorized, the distinctions are not always clear-cut. For example, a teacher may provide information through the lecture method (from the direct instruction strategy) while using an interpretive method to ask students to determine the significance of information that was presented (from the indirect instruction strategy). Five categories of instructional strategies are described below.

Direct instruction

Direct instruction, a highly teacher-directed strategy, includes methods such as lecture, didactic questioning, explicit teaching, practice and drill, and demonstrations. Direct instruction is effective for providing information such as lab safety guidelines or developing step-by-step skills. This strategy also works well for introducing other teaching methods, or actively involving students in knowledge construction.

Indirect instruction

Inquiry, induction, problem solving, decision making, and discovery are terms that are sometimes used interchangeably to describe indirect instruction. Indirect instruction is primarily learner-centred and includes methods such as reflective discussion, concept formation, concept attainment, cloze procedure, and guided inquiry.

Indirect instruction seeks a high level of student involvement in observing, investigating, drawing inferences from data, or forming hypotheses, all of which are highly valued in science. It takes advantage of students' interest and curiosity, often encouraging them to generate alternatives or solve problems. It is flexible in that it frees students to explore diverse possibilities and reduces the fear associated with the possibility of giving incorrect answers. Indirect instruction also fosters creativity and the development of interpersonal skills and abilities. Students often achieve a better understanding of the material and ideas under study and develop the ability to draw on these understandings.

Inquiry
Inquiry is at the heart of science instruction. Inquiry is a multifaceted activity that involves making observations; posing questions; examining books and other sources of information to see what is already known; planning investigations; reviewing what is already known in light of experimental evidence; using tools to gather, analyze, and interpret data; proposing answers, explanations, and predictions; and communicating the results. Inquiry requires identification of assumptions, use of critical and logical thinking, and consideration of alternative explanations. (National Research Council, 1996, p. 23)

At this grade, students should develop sophistication in their abilities and understanding of scientific inquiry. Students should be able to: Teachers need to ensure that topics for science investigations are meaningful to students. Topics may come from current events, relevant local and global STSE issues, and student questions. Some investigations may begin with little meaning for students but develop meaning through active involvement, continued exposure, and growing skill and understanding.

Interactive instruction

Interactive instruction relies heavily on discussion and sharing among participants. Students can learn from peers and teachers to develop social skills and abilities, to organize their thoughts, and to develop rational arguments. The interactive instruction strategy allows for a range of groupings and interactive methods. These may include total class discussions, small group discussions or projects, or student pairs or triads working on assignments together. It is important for the teacher to outline the topic, the amount of discussion time, the composition and size of the groups, and reporting or sharing techniques. Interactive instruction requires the refinement of observation, listening, interpersonal, and intervention skills and abilities by both teacher and students. Examples of interactive instruction instructional methods appropriate for science include deliberative dialogues, debates, role playing, tutorial groups and laboratory groups. This instructional method reflects the basic premise of science - that science is based on evidence that is shared publicly with others in order that they may attempt to establish the validity and reliability of the evidence.

Experiential learning

Experiential learning is inductive, learner centred, and activity oriented. Personalized reflection about an experience and the formulation of plans to apply learnings to other contexts are critical factors in effective experiential learning.

Experiential learning can be viewed as a cycle consisting of five phases, all of which are necessary: The emphasis in experiential learning is on the process of learning and not on the product. A teacher can use experiential learning as an instructional strategy both in and outside the classroom. For example, in the classroom students can build and stock an aquatic or terrestrial ecosystem or engage in a simulation. Outside the classroom they can, for example, observe scientists working to solve a problem, or conduct a public opinion survey. Experiential learning makes use of a variety of resources.

Independent study

Independent study refers to the range of instructional methods that are purposefully provided to foster the development of individual student initiative, self-reliance, and self-improvement. While student or teacher may initiate independent study, the focus here will be on planned independent study by students under the guidance or supervision of a classroom teacher. In addition, independent study can include learning in partnership with another individual or as part of a small group.

Independent study encourages students to take responsibility for planning and pacing their own learning. Independent study can be used in conjunction with other methods, or it can be used as the single instructional strategy for an entire unit. The factors of student maturity and independence are obviously important to the teacher's planning.

Adequate learning resources for independent study are critical. The teacher who wishes to help students become more autonomous learners will need to support the development of their abilities to access and handle information. It is important to assess the abilities students already possess. These abilities often vary widely within any group of students. Specific skills and abilities may then be incorporated into assignments tailored to the capabilities of individual students. The co-operation of the teacher librarian and the availability of materials from the resource centre and the community provide additional support.

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Facilities


Adequate facilities and materials, by themselves, do not create a safe science class. They do contribute significantly to the ability of a teacher to deliver an activity-based science course. Proper use of the facilities and materials is also critical. Since the use of a wide range of instructional methods in Science 10 is desirable, more flexible teaching areas are useful. This might be a well-designed laboratory that can be reconfigured to accommodate small group discussions, small group and large group laboratory activities, lectures, research work, or other activities. Or, it may be a combination of two or more existing rooms. Some features of a good science laboratory/facility are:

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Safety


Safety in the classroom is of paramount importance. Other components of education (resources, teaching strategies, facilities) attain their maximum utility only in a safe classroom. Safety is no longer simply a matter of common sense. To create a safe classroom requires that a teacher be informed, be aware, and be proactive and that the students listen, think, and respond appropriately. Saskatchewan Labour: Health and Safety {3539:6449}
Safety cannot be mandated by rule of law, or by teacher command or school regulation. Safety and safe practice are an attitude. Safe practice in the laboratory is the joint responsibility of the teacher and students. The teacher's responsibility is to provide a safe environment and to ensure the students are aware of safe practice. The students' responsibility is to act intelligently based on the advice which is given and which is available in various resources.

Safety sessions are often offered at science teachers' conventions. Many articles in science teachers' journals provide helpful hints on safety. Professional exchange may provide teachers with ideas to strengthen safety practices.

Teachers should encourage students to become aware that they must accept a large measure of the responsibility for their own safety. They can only do this if they are properly educated about what is safe. Once this education has begun, encourage the students to think about their actions. Such encouragement may take the form of safety-related questions on exams, preparing an outline of safety precautions in a laboratory activity as part of the pre-lab preparation for the activity, using a safety contract signed by the student, parent(s) and teacher, and the modeling of safe practice in the laboratory.

Awareness is not something that can be learned as much as it is developed through a visible safety emphasis: safety equipment such as a fire extinguisher, a fire blanket, and an eye wash station prominently displayed; safety posters on the wall; a "safety class" with students at the start of the year; and regular emphasis on safety precautions while preparing students for activities.

Six basic principles guide the creation and maintenance of a safe classroom:
  1. Model safe procedures at all times.
  2. Instruct students about safe procedures at every opportunity. Stress that students should remember to use safe procedures when experimenting at home.
  3. Close supervision of students at all times during activities, along with good organization, can avert situations where accidents and incidents can occur. Inappropriate behaviours in a classroom, and more particularly in a laboratory, can result in physical danger to all present and destroy the learning atmosphere for the class.
  4. Be aware of any health or allergy problems that students may have.
  5. Display commercial, teacher-made, or student-made safety posters.
  6. Take a first aid course. If an injury is beyond your level of competence to treat, wait until medical help arrives.
Normally, safety is understood to be concerned with the physical safety and welfare of persons, and to a lesser degree with personal property. The definition of safety can also be extended to a consideration of the well-being of the biosphere. The components of the biosphere (plants, animals, earth, air, and water) deserve the care and concern which we can offer. From knowing what wild flowers can be picked to considering the disposal of toxic wastes from chemistry laboratories, the safety of our world and our future depends on our actions and teaching in science classes. It is important that students practise ethical, responsible behaviours when caring for and experimenting with live animals. For further information, refer to the National Science Teachers Association (NSTA) position statement Guidelines for Responsible Use of Animals in the Classroom ( www.nsta.org ).

Safety in the science classroom includes the storage and disposal of chemicals. The Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System (WHMIS) regulations under the Hazardous Products Act govern storage and handling practices of chemicals in school laboratories. All school divisions should be complying with the provisions of the Act. Under WHMIS regulations, all employees involved in handling hazardous substances must receive training by their employer. If you have not been informed about or trained in this program, contact your Director of Education immediately. For more information, contact Health Canada or Saskatchewan Labour or see their respective websites.

Additional information related to chemical storage and safety in Saskatchewan is identified in A Guide to Laboratory Safety and Chemical Management in School Science Activities (Saskatchewan Environment and Public Safety, 1987). This document was initially distributed to all schools in the late 1980s. Additional copies are available through Saskatchewan Learning Curriculum Distribution Services.

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Language and Communication in Science


Language and its related communication skills and strategies are important tools for learning and communicating in science. The incorporation of the CEL of Communication into Science 10 supports the use of a wide range of language experiences in order to develop students' understanding. In order to understand and use new ideas in science, students need to become literate in science. Literacy is "not limited to text.[but] relates to the ability to construe meaning in any of the forms used in the culture to create and convey meaning" (Eisner, 1991, p. 125). It involves a continuum of interrelated skills and strategies including:
Students develop appropriate language skills in science when learning experiences extend beyond reading science textbooks, writing structured laboratory reports, and presenting posters about a science-related topic. While each of these is important, they are not the only components of a well-rounded science program. The STSE nature of Science 10 supports student inquiry into topics from multiple perspectives using all of the strands of language. For example, in all four units, students should conduct and synthesize research regarding relevant issues, state and defend positions, and present their ideas publicly. Ideas about developing language and understanding in science are presented below.

Listening and Speaking

Oral discourse is the foundation of literacy and of learning. Through listening and speaking , students in their science courses communicate their thoughts, experiences, information, and opinions, and they learn to understand key ideas and details, how to construct concepts, to speculate, to explain, and to clarify their thinking.

Oral communication in science involves talking to others, speaking publicly, and presenting and debating ideas. Like scientists, students can learn to vary the formality of their language, especially the use of terminology, when addressing diverse audiences, yet to convey their message without distorting the science or overstating their claims. Students should have opportunities to present and defend their ideas in front of classmates and perhaps to a broader public through oral presentations such as role plays, deliberations, debates, or structured controversies. They also should learn to follow directions, to participate in discussions, to understand scientific concepts and principles, and to form opinions.

Viewing and Representing

Viewing and representing are also integral parts of communication and learning. They allow students to understand the ways in which images and language interact to convey ideas, values, and beliefs. Viewing enables students to acquire information and to appreciate the ideas and experiences of others. In science, students need to make sense of a variety of visual media such as diagrams, symbols, charts, photographs, videos, television, films, drama, drawings, and models.

Representing enables students to both explore and communicate their ideas using a variety of media and formats, including tables, charts, sketches, scientific diagrams, illustrations, photographs, images or symbols, posters, three-dimensional objects or models, sounds, music, video presentations, multi-media productions, web site creation, and dramatizations. Students may use graphic organizers such as concept maps, Venn diagrams, flowcharts, taxonomic keys, and fishbone diagrams to illustrate their understanding. Students should be given opportunities to represent their science knowledge and understanding using a variety of these formats throughout each unit.

Reading and Writing

Reading and writing are powerful means of communicating and learning. Students in Science 10 should read to be informed, to perform tasks, and to understand the experiences and thoughts of others, particularly scientists. In reading to be informed, students are gathering information and/or explanations in order to understand an idea or concept. Information in many science texts is generally presented using a combination of brief textual passages and multiple visual representation systems (e.g., tables, graphs, pictures, equations, and charts). In reading to perform a task, students read in order to do something, such as to follow a set of procedures for a lab activity. In reading to understand the experiences and thoughts of others, students read mainly to gain insight into the personal feelings and ideas presented.

Teachers should evaluate the type and level of, as well as the purpose for, the reading materials used with students. Texts and other reading materials should be chosen to match students' reading levels and should address science concepts from multiple viewpoints, particularly STSE perspectives. Most texts that students will read in science will be expository (non-fiction), but there are also opportunities to use narrative (fiction and non-fiction) text to engage students while teaching science concepts. Students should read textbooks, magazines, journals, science news, fiction, and non-fiction accounts of science in order to understand how scientific concepts are embedded in various types of texts.

Scientists write to inform, to persuade, to reflect, and to construct knowledge claims. Similarly, students should be given opportunities throughout Science 10 to engage in a range of writing to express current ideas about science in a form that students can examine and think about again. They should record observations in journals or field notebooks, write to reflect on new learning, and write to express their ideas to others. Student writing can support the three broad areas of emphasis of Science 10: science inquiry, problem solving, and decision making. Examples of such writing can include research reports, position papers, letters to the editor, and technical manuals.

Vocabulary and Terminology in Science

Every area of study uses words with specific meanings to communicate its key concepts. Knowing key terms and their related concepts helps students understand science and gives them a tool to talk about, write about, and represent those ideas. Students should learn this vocabulary or terminology not by memorizing definitions, but rather by observing and engaging with natural phenomena and using their own language to describe these phenomena. Once students demonstrate a conceptual understanding of particular phenomena, teachers should introduce appropriate scientific vocabulary to describe these phenomena. Students need to recognize that many common words (e.g., force, work, energy, cycle, weight, gravity) have specific meaning when used in the context of science. Students should also know that many science terms have operational definitions - that is, the definition describes how to measure the phenomena.

Knowledge Development in Science

Science is a way of understanding the natural world, using internally consistent methods and principles that are well described and understood by the scientific community. The principles and theories of science have been established through repeated experimentation and observation and have been refereed through peer review before general acceptance by the scientific community. Acceptance of a theory does not imply unchanging belief in a theory, or denote dogma . Instead, as new data become available, previous scientific explanations are revised and improved, or rejected and replaced. There is a progression from a hypothesis to a theory using testable, scientific laws. Many hypotheses are tested to generate a theory. Only a few scientific facts are considered natural laws (e.g., the Law of Conservation of Mass).

Students and teachers should understand how scientists define and use the concepts of hypotheses, theories, and laws to aid in their understanding of the natural world.

Hypothesis - A hypothesis is a tentative, testable generalization that may be used to explain a relatively large number of events in the natural world. It is subject to immediate or eventual testing by experiments. Hypotheses must be worded in such a way that they can be falsified. Hypotheses are never proven correct.

Theory - A theory is an explanation for a set of related observations or events that also predicts the results of future observations. The explanation may consist of statements, equations, models, or a combination of these. A theory becomes a theory once the explanation is verified multiple times by separate groups of researchers. The procedures and processes for testing a theory are well-defined within each scientific discipline, but they vary between disciplines. No amount of evidence proves that a theory is correct. Rather, scientists accept theories until the emergence of new evidence that the theory is unable to adequately explain. At this point, the theory is discarded or modified to explain the new evidence.

Law - A law is a generalized description , usually expressed in mathematical terms, that describes empirical behaviour under certain conditions.

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Technology in Science 10


Technology-based resources should be considered an essential component for instruction in the Science 10 classroom. Technology is intended to extend our senses and capabilities and, therefore, is one part of the teaching toolkit. Individual, small group, or class reflection and discussions are required to connect the work with the technology to the conceptual development, understandings, and activities of the students. Some examples of using technology to support teaching and learning are listed below:

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Science Competitions


In the previous Science 10 curriculum, Science Challenge was a separate unit which teachers could address through Science Fairs, Science Olympics, research projects, or extension activities for the core units. This curriculum regards those approaches as instructional methods suitable for students in any unit. Teachers may choose to treat science competition activities as an integral component of Science 10, or treat them similar to other extracurricular activities such as school sports and clubs.

If science competitions are undertaken as a classroom activity, teachers should consider these guidelines, adapted from the National Science Teachers' Association Position Statement on Science Competitions :

A science fair may be conducted solely at the school level, or with the intent of preparing students for competition in one of the regional science fairs, perhaps as a step towards the Canada Wide Science Fair. Although students may be motivated by prizes, awards, and possibility of scholarships, teachers should emphasize that the importance of doing a science fair project includes attaining new experiences and skills that go beyond science, technology, or engineering. Students learn to present their ideas to an authentic public that may consist of parents, teachers, and the top scientists in a given field.

Grade 10 students who participate in a Science Fair should develop projects that are more sophisticated than the research level of projects that are appropriate for earlier grades. Grade 10 students should conduct an experiment, a study, or develop an innovation (see brief descriptions below):
Youth Science Foundation Canada ( www.ysf.ca ) provides further information regarding science fairs in Canada Youth Science Foundation Canada {9539:9947} Steps to Prepare a Science Fair Project {856:324} .

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Modelling in Science


A scientific model is an idea or set of ideas that explains the causes of particular natural phenomena. Models are complex constructions that consist of conceptual objects (e.g., temperature, pressure) and processes (e.g., weather dynamics) in which the objects participate or interact. Scientists spend considerable time and effort building and testing models to further understanding of the natural world. Similarly, when engaging in the processes of science, students are constantly building and testing their own models of understanding of the natural world. Students may need help in learning how to identify and articulate their own models of natural phenomena. Activities that involve reflection and metacognition are particularly useful in this regard. (Refer to the objectives for the CEL of Critical and Creative Thinking for specific objectives related to the development of cognition, available on-line at: www.sasklearning.gov.sk.ca/docs/policy/cels/index.html.)

Models are representations of some aspects of physical phenomenon. They are never exact replicas of real phenomena; rather, models are simplified versions of reality, generally constructed in order to facilitate study of complex systems such as the atom, climate change, and biogeochemical cycles. Models may be entirely physical, mental, or mathematical or contain a combination of these elements. For example, when studying weather dynamics, students may create a "tornado in a bottle", which is a physical analogue model that corresponds to the motion of winds in a tornado. Further along the continuum of models, climate change modeling requires the use of powerful computers that use real or modeled data to create visual representations of future changes. Mathematical models are used to represent the amount of heat that can be stored in a particular quantity of a substance such as earth, air, or water.

When building and testing models, students should be able to identify the features of the natural phenomena that their model represents or explains and, just as importantly, identify which features are not represented or explained. Students should determine the usefulness of their model by judging whether the model helps in understanding the underlying concepts or processes. Students should realize that different models of the same phenomena may be needed in order to investigate or understand different aspects of the phenomena. For example, the Bohr model of the atom is only useful for describing orbits of atoms with a single electron, yet the concept of a Bohr model serves a useful purpose in explaining shell filling for all atoms.

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Laboratory Work


Laboratory work is often at the centre of scientific research. As such, it should also be an integral component of school science. The NSTA recommends that a minimum of 40 percent of the science instruction time should be spent on laboratory-related activities in high school science courses. This time includes pre-lab instruction in concepts relevant to the laboratory, hands-on activities by the students, and a post-lab period involving analysis and communication.

The inquisitive spirit of science is assimilated by students who participate in meaningful laboratory activities. The laboratory is a vital environment in which science is experienced. It may be a specially equipped room, a self-contained classroom, a field site, or a larger place, such as the community in which science experiments are conducted. Laboratory experience is so integral to the nature of science that it must be included in every science program for every student. Hands-on science activities can and should include a mix of individual, small, and large group experiences.

Problem-solving abilities, one of the three strands of emphasis in Science 10, are refined in the context of laboratory inquiry. Laboratory activities develop a wide variety of investigative, organizational, creative, and communicative skills. The laboratory provides an optimal setting for motivating students while they experience the natural world through the lens of science.

Laboratory activities enhance student performance in the following domains:
The results of student investigations and experiments do not always need to be written up in formal laboratory reports. Teachers may consider using narrative lab reports as an alternative for some experiments. In other cases, it may be sufficient for students to write a paragraph describing the significance of their findings. The narrative lab report enables students to tell the story of their process and findings in a less structured format than a typical lab report. In a narrative lab report, students answer four questions: What was I looking for?, How did I look for it?, What did I find?, and What does this mean? The answers are written in an essay format rather than using the structured headings of Purpose, Procedure, Hypothesis, Data, Analysis, and Conclusion that are typically associated with a formal lab report.

There are no specific laboratory activities mandated for Science 10. A strong science program includes a variety of laboratory experiences for students. Most importantly, the laboratory experience for students needs to go beyond conducting confirmatory "cook-book" experiments. Similarly, computer simulations and teacher demonstrations are valuable but should not be substitutions for laboratory activities. Assessment and evaluation of student performance must reflect the laboratory experience.

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Community-Based Education

Community education is a philosophy based on community involvement and lifelong learning. It supports the view that learning is influenced by fundamental connections between families, community members, organizations, teachers and students. Community education promotes connections between the school and the family as well as between the school and the community. These connections are honoured when schools adopt the community education philosophy.

There are many opportunities in Science 10 to engage students within their community. Examples include:
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